Books/Articles & Authors (Modern)

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Ghulamgiri (challenged superiority of Brahmins)   Jyotiba Phule
Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (Gift to Monotheists in Persian)   Raja Rammohun Roy
Dharma Tritiya Ratna, Ishvara & Life of Shivaji   Jyotiba Phule
New Lamp for the Old (Series of Articles criticizing Congress)   Aurobindo Ghosh
Doctrine of Passive Resistance (Articles in Bande Mataram)   Aurobindo Ghosh
Indian War of Independence (seized by British)   V.D. Savarkar
Loyal Muhammadans of India   Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Tahaib-al-Akhlaq         Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Asbab-e-Bagawar-e-Hind (Held Bahadur Shah II as fool for revolting)   Sayyed Ahmad Khan
Neel Darpan         Dinbandhu Mitra
How did America get Freedom   Ram Prasad Bismil
The activities of Bolsheviks, The wave of the Mind, Colour of Swadeshi,   Ram Prasad Bismil
Revolutionary Life          
Systematic HISTORY of Ancient India   V.A. Smith
Hindu Polity         K.P. Jayaswal
Political History of Ancient India   H.C. Raychaudhary
A History of Ancient India; A history of South India   K.A. Nilkant Shastri
Hindu Civilization; Chandragupta Maurya; Asoka;   R.K. Mookerji
Fundamental Unity of India    
History of Dharmashastra   P.V. Kane
The Wonder That was India   A.L. Basham

Cultural Achievements of the Pallavas

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Civilization and Culture of the Pallavas

The Pallava rule formed a golden epoch in the cultural history of south India. The period under the Pallavas was marked by considerable literary activities and cultural revival. The Pallavas warmly patronized Sanskrit language and most of the literary records of the time were composed in that language. Due to the cultural renaissance and a great revival of the Sanskrit language a galaxy of scholars flourished during the Pallava era, which accentuated the literary and cultural development in Southern India. Tradition referred that Simhavishnu, the Pallava king invited the great poet Bharvi to adorn his court. Dandin, the master of Sanskrit prose probably lived in the court of Narasimhavarmana II. Under the royal patronage, Kanchi became the seat of Sanskrit language and literature. The core of learning and education, Kanchi became the point of attraction for the literary scholars. Dinanaga, Kalidasa, Bharvi, Varahamihir etc were the distinguished person with enormous talent in the Pallava country. Not only the Sanskrit literature, the Tamil literature also received a huge impetus during the Pallava period. “Maatavailasa Prahasana”, written by Mahendravarmana became very popular. The famous Tamil classic “Tamil Kural was composed during the period under the royal patronage. Madurai became a great center of the Tamil literature and culture. The Tamil grammar “Talakappiam” and Tamil versical compilation “Ettalogai” etc were composed during the period. These were of immense literary importance.

From the 6th century AD, due to the Sanskrit revival, long poetical composition replaced the earlier style of the short poetry. Poetry was written according to the taste of the sophisticated and aristocratic people of the society. The “Silappadigaram” is one of such work suited to the taste of the sophisticated, educated people of the Pallava era. One of the most important literary works of the time was “Ramayanam” by Kaban. This is known as the Tamil form and version of Ramayana, where the character of Ravana was painted with all the noble virtues in comparison to Rama. It is consistent with the Tamil tradition and Tamil ego against the Northern Ramayana by Valmiki. The Buddhist literary work “Manimekhala” and the Jaina poetical work “Shibaga sindamani” etc. also flourished during the period.

The devotional songs composed by Vaishnava Alavaras and the Saiva Nayanaras also shared a significant position in the cultural renaissance of the Pallava period. Appar, Sambandhar, Manikkabsagar, Sundar were some of the devotional Narayana poets who composed Tamil Stotras or hymns. Siva was the object of worship and love. Since the Pallava kings were great musicians themselves they were the great patrons of music. Several celebrated musical treatise were also composed under their patronage. During the time painting also received a great patronage from the Pallava kings. Specimen of the Pallava painting has been found in the Pudukottai State.

Civilization of the Pallava period was greatly influenced by the religious reform movement that swept over India during the eighth century. The wave of the reform movement was originated in the Pallava kingdom first. The Pallavas completed the Aryanisation of Southern India. The Jains who had entered south India earlier had set up educational centers at Madurai and Kanchi. They also made a massive use of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Tamil as the medium of their preaching. But in the competition with the growing popularity of the Brahmanical Hinduism, Jainism lost its prominence in the long run.

Mahendravarmana lost interest in Jainism and became a staunch follower and patron of Saivism. Consequently Jainism began to fade out and continued in diminishing glory in centers like Pudukottai and in the hilly and forest regions.

Buddhism, which had earlier penetrated in the south, fought against invading Brahmanism in the monasteries and public debates. The Buddhist scholars debated finer points of theology with Brahmanical scholars and mostly lost the ground.

The civilization of the Pallava period was marked by the tremendous ascendancy of the Hinduism, which has been branded by the modern historians as the victory of the northern Aryanism. It is said that the influx of the mlechcha Sakas, Huns and the Kushanas in Northern India had polluted the significance of the Vedic rites and religion. In order to protect the purity of Vedic religion many Brahmins migrated to Southern India and preached the Vedic Religion. Henceforth the civilization of Deccan or southern India was mostly influenced by the Brahmanical Hinduism. Pallavas became the patrons of the orthodox Vedic preachers. The performance of the horse sacrifices by the Pallava rulers testified the ascendancy of the Vedic civilization. The success of Hinduism was mostly caused by the royal patronage to this religion. Sanskrit was the vehicle of the Brahmanical thought. Hence both the Brahmanical religion and Sanskrit literature made a great progress during the Pallava period. Several centers for the Brahmanical study sprang up. These study centers were closely connected with the temple premises and were known as Ghetikas. The study of the Brahmanical scriptures and literatures was the order of the day. The Pallava kings in order to promote the Brahmanical civilization made land grants or agraharas to the maintenance of the educational institutions. In the 8th century AD, another significant Hindu institution called Mathas or monasteries were in vogue. They were a combination of temple, rest houses, educational centers, debating and discoursing centers and the feeding Houses. The university of Kanchi became the spearhead of Aryan-Brahmanical influences of the South. Kanchi was regarded as one of the sacred cities of the Hindus. The Pallava king though mainly were the worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, they were tolerant towards other religious creeds. Although the religions like Buddhism and Jainism lost its former significance during the Pallava era, yet the civilization of the Pallava period was marked by the multiethnicity promoted by the Pallava kings.

Simon Commission (1927)

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  • Indian Statutory Commission chaired by Simon to go into the question of further constitutional reform
  • All its seven members were Englishmen. Clement Attlee was one of the members.
  • Lord Birkinhead was the secretary of state at that time
  • At its Madras session in 1927 INC decided to boycott the commission “at every stage and in every form”
    • ML and Hindu Mahasabha supported Congress
  • Nehru Report, 1928
    • Dominion status
    • Contained Bill of Rights
    • No state religion
    • Federal form
    • Linguistically determined provinces
    • No separate electorates
    • All Party Convention, held at Calcutta in 1928, failed to pass the report
    • Muslim league rejected the proposals of the report
    • Jinnah drafted his fourteen points
    • Hindu Mahasabha and Sikh League also objected
  • Poorna Swaraj
    • Resolution passed at the Lahore session in 1929
    • On 31 December 1929, the tri-color was hoisted
    • On 26 January 1930, Independence Day was celebrated

 

Continental Drift Theory – Tectonics

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The continental drift theory is the theory that once all the continents were joined in a super-continent, which scientists call Pangaea. Over a vast period of time, the continents drifted apart to their current locations. Alfred Wegener first supported continental drift.

Wegener’s explanation of continental drift in 1912 was that drifting occurred because of the earth’s rotation. Fossil records from separate continents, particularly on the outskirts of continents show the same species.

Sikkim : Planned Development

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Sikkim : Planned Development

State government has given large attention to the planned development of State so as to improve the socio economic indicators of the State. Urbanization is a part of the development process and rural-urban migration is largely common in developing economies and it is common for the state of Sikkim. During these processes, existing urban facilities like housing, sanitation, transportation, safe drinking water supply, and health are generally under stress. Therefore, in the case of towns like Gangtok, Namchi, Gyalshing, Mangan and other notified bazaars, Government is working to develop sufficient support facilities and are already transforming each urban center as models of excellence.

Sikkim government has laid emphasis on the planned development of the state. Overall strategy to induce positive development in the state has been laid. It has been laid at for levels :-

State as a whole

Four Districts

Urban Growth centers

Basic Urban Settlements

A well planned  strategy has been adopted to envision the “Urban” Sikkim of the future. The State Government has also adopted a Concept Note on Micro Cities, a granular intervention in the development of Rural Marketing Centers and Class III Bazars. All bazars will be eco friendly and smart bazars. It is unizue programme for the development of state and government has provided huge investments for the programme.

The Strategic Urban Plan for the State documents the guidelines for the planning of towns and bazaars across the State with due room to keep their unique strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats as part of the planning process.

One city of Sikkim i.e. Namchi has been selected among the 100 shortlisted cities to be developed under the Smart Cities Mission of the Government of India. With overall development, Namchi can be made a world class city.

Gangtok which is the capital of the State with a population of a little over one lakh, is already implementing schemes under the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation(AMRUT) to improve basic services. Gangtok has also been shortlisted to participate in the Smart City programme and is a probable addition to the Smart City list.

State Government has decided to introduce the Smart City concept to construct underground malls and markets in these towns to create larger spaces for urban business hubs. Under the Smart City concept, Government want to develop the cities into a vibrant and connected city of opportunities.

Central Plans in Development of the State

Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (DoNER) launched North East Rural Livelihood Project (NERLP) that would create 0.3 million jobs in Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. The US$ 115.1 million project would be implemented during the 12th Five Year Plan and is financed by the World Bank. It would be implemented in 14 blocks of Sikkim. The project is expected to be completed by 2018

Up gradation and modernization of raw water trunk mains and water treatment plant for Greater Gangtok has been taken up. 80% of work completed Under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)has been completed. The rehabilitation of sewerage systems of Gangtok is being undertaken at a cost of US$ 5.3 million. Water treatment and distribution system up gradation are also being undertaken at a cost of US$ 15.74 million.

To extend financial support to the state government and to provide water supply facilities in towns having population less than 20,000, the centrally sponsored Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP) was launched that has been merged with Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT). Under this, US$ 8.7 million has been allocated for development of water supply systems and sewerage in Mangan, Namchi, Jorethang, Melli and Rangpo.

The Sikkim Water Security & Public Health Engineering Department (WS & PHED) provides water supply to Gangtok, six major notified towns, 41 other urban towns and 92 notified rural marketing centers. Gangtok has a requirement of 30 million litres per day and the WS & PHED has a storage and distribution capacity of 45.5 million litres. During 2015-16, the major functions such as solid waste, car/bazaar parking contract, sanitation, trade license, etc. were relocated to urban local bodies. Moreover, during 2016-17, the state government is targeting development of residential colonies to minimize uncontrollable migration across the state.

The state government is laying emphasis on providing Wi-Fi services across various major towns of the state, during 2016-17. In addition, other mobile technologies such as online payments, inner line permit tracking system, m-Tourism, etc. would also be provided in the state during the same period. Moreover, during 2016-17, an announcement was made by the Chief Minister that under “Micro-Cities” concept, development work on 39 small bazaars would be undertaken in a phased manner, during 2016-17. The total budget allocation for urban development during 2016-17, is estimated to be US$ 15.77 million. In addition, US$ 5.82 million and US$ 5.27 million would be allocated for the development of water supply & sanitation as well as housing sector, respectively.

Smart City Mission

Smart Cities Mission focus on the  most pressing needs and  the greatest opportunities to improve lives of the people. They tap a range of approaches – digital and information technologies, urban planning best practices, public-private partnerships, and policy change – to make a difference. They always put people first.

The objective is to promote cities that provide core infrastructure and give a decent quality of life to its citizens, a clean and sustainable environment and application of ‘Smart’ Solutions. The focus is on sustainable and inclusive development and the idea is to look at compact areas, create a replicable model which will act like a light house to other aspiring cities. The Smart Cities Mission is meant to set examples that can be replicated both within and outside the Smart City, catalyzing the creation of similar Smart Cities in various regions and parts of the country.

The Smart City Mission is an urban renewal programme initiated by the central government in June 2015. The main aim of the program is to improve infrastructure and to create sustainable and citizen friendly urban cities. A smart city is defined as a city which is highly developed in terms of infrastructure and communications. At its launch in 2015, the central government had identified 100 towns across India to be under this programme.

The central government has announced plans to develop Gangtok, Pelling, and Yuksam cities as smart cities as in coming years.

The central government announced plans to develop Namchi as one of the 98 smart cities in India.

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

It emanates from the vision of the Government articulated in the address of the President of India. The objective of the Mission is for providing basic services like water supply, sewerage, urban transport etc to household and build amenities in cities which will improve the quality of life for all, especially the poor and the disadvantaged is a national priority.

As per the state budget 2016-17, work on service level improvement plan under AMRUT is expected to be submitted to the Central Ministry during 2016-17.

Gangtok which is the capital of the State with a population of a little over one lakh, is already implementing schemes under the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation(AMRUT) to improve basic services.

Miscellaneous Facts:

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1.The Marathas were Scindia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Gaekwar (Baroda), Bhonsle (Nagpur).

 

2.Sawai Jai Singh of Amer (Jaipur) had Euclid’s ‘Elements of Geometry) & several works on Trigonometry were translated into https://exam.pscnotes.com/sanskrit”>Sanskrit. Banda Bairagi was baptised as Banda Singh Bahadur by Guru Gobind Singh.

 

3.Alfonso d’ Albuquerque came to India as The Portuguese governor & later captured Goa.

 

4.By a Farman issued in 1717 by Farrukh Siyar the East India company gained many concessions. The first British factory was established in 1651 in Hughli under permission from Shah Shuja, Subedar of Bengal & son of mughal emperor Shah Jahan.

 

5.Clive introducted the system of dual administration in Bengal under which the company acquired real power while the responsibility of administration – Nizamat as well as Diwani was exercised through Indians. This system was finally terminated by Warren Hastings.

 

6.Under subsidiary alliance a British resident & army was to be kept at the princely state & a portion of the territory/annual amount was to be given for maintenance. In return the states got British protection.

 

7.Devasting famine of Bengal in 1770 & 1837 (8 lakhs died). Later there was serious famine in 1896-97 & 1899-1901.

 

8.The sequence of states which were annexed by Doctrine of Lapse were Satara (1848), Sambalpur of Orissa, Jaitpur in Bundelkhand (both in 1849), Baghat (1850)Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854). Awadh was annexed on the grounds of misrule.

 

9.First direct translation of a Sanskrit work into English was completed by Charles Wilkins. The book that was translated was the Bhagavad-Gita. The pindaris were a group of irregular horsemen attached to the Maratha army who used to serve without pay but were allowed to plunder. The British suppressed them.

 

  1. The Britishers stopped the pension of Peshwa Baji Rao II’s adopted son Nana Sahib, the nawab of Carinatic & the Raja of Tanjore.

 

  1. The army officers in Bengal were paid two times extra allowance in comparison to their counterparts in Madras. Lord Clive stopped this & consequently the British Army Officers rose in revolt which came to be known as the White Revolt.

 

  1. In 1853 Charles Wood became the Chairman of the board of control. Consequently by the Charter Act of 1853, Indians were allowed entry into the Civil Services. The minimum age was raised to 23 & its centre was England & Enlish was made the medium. The dispatch recommended the establishment of one university each in Calcutta, Bombay & Madras on the model of London University.

 

  1. Cornwallis was the first Governor General to establish a regular Police force on the British pattern in India. Warren Hastings established a fauzdari & Diwani Adalats. The Diwani adalats were presided over by the District collectors whereas Indian Judges assisted by Muftis & Qazis decided cases in Faujdari adalats.

 

 

 

Appeals from these adalats could be made to Sadar Diwani adalat & Sadar Nizamal adalat at Calcutta. Warren Hastings also established a madrasa in Calcutta to encourage study of Muslim laws.

 

  1. The Sadar Diwani & Sadar Nizamat adalats operated on the basis of Indian laws.

 

  1. Lord Cornwallis divested the collector of all judicial powers, thereby putting an end to his role as both the collector of revenue & the district magistrate. He created a new post called District judge for the purpose. During his period the system of Zamidari was introduced. The Mahalwari & Ryotwari systems were also devised to maximize revenue collections.

 

  1. Gradation of criminal courts were – district, circuit, provincial circuit & the highest Sadar Nizamat Adalat. The Governor General enjoyed power of pardon. In case of Civil Law the gradation was Munsifs, court of registrars, district courts, provincial courts (Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad& Patna), Sadar Diwani Adalat & the highest King in Council.

 

  1. Lord William Bentick established separate Sadar Nizamat Adalat & Sadar Diwan Adalat were set up at Allahabad for convenience of N W Indian Population.

 

  1. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856. In 1891 though the enactment of the age of Consent act the minimum marriageable age for a girl was raised to 12 years. In 1930 though the Sharda Act the minimum age was raised to 14 years. After independence the limit was raised to 15 years (1948) & 18 years (1978).

 

  1. Railways were introduced during Dalhousie’s period. Dalhousie also passed Religious Disabilities Act. Till 1850 a convert to other religion used to be disinherited from the ancestral property, but now even after adopting Christianity his claims on property remained intact. Lord Caning (1856-62) was the last governor general of the east India company.

 

  1. In 1852 Inam commission was established. Its objective was to take over the lands on which revenue was not being paid.

 

  1. Lord Ellenborough discontinued the practice of giving gifts to Bahadur Shah & stuck his name off the coins. Dalhousie asked him to vacate Delhi & shift to Qutab area. Canning announced that the emperor should renounce the title & his status be reduced to that of a prince.

 

  1. The mode of carrying the Revolt of 1857 was chappatis & red lotus. Initally planned on 31st May but on 29th March Magal Pandey revolted. Bakht Khan was the actual leader at Delhi, Begum Hazrat Mahal at Lucknow (declared her minor son Bijris Kadar the nawab & rose in revolt), Nana Saheb, Tantya Tope, Azimullah khan at Kanpur, Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur (Bihar),Ahmadullah at Rohilkhand, Ranga Bapuji Gupte in Maharashtra, Sonaji Pant & Ranga Rao Page of Kolhapur, Radhakrishna Dandsena at Ganjam. Chengalpet (under Annagiri & Krishna) near Madras was also a major centre.

 

 

 

  1. Loyalist included Holkar of Indore, ruler of Gwalior, rulers of Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Nizam of Hyderabad, Gulab Singh of Kashmir, Sikh rulers of Patiala, Nawab of Bhopal, rulers of Tehri & Tikagarh. Big landlords, moneylenders & traders also supported the rule of the company. The English educated classes also remained indifferent. Queen of Bahadur Shah, Rani Jeenat Mahal & her two sons joined hands with the enemy.

 

  1. Bahadur Shah was sent to Asylum in Rangoon where he died in 1862.

 

  1. The white soldiers revolted because of their discontent due to shifting of their divisions from the East India Company to the command of British Crown. Due to this Canning had to remove nearly 10,000 soldiers. This was called the ‘Revolt of the whites’.

 

  1. Following the revolt the army was reorganized. No European was recruited in the local forces. Crucial branches of army like artillery exclusive for British. Except for some loyal regiments the Bengal army was disbanded.

 

  1. In 1876 the British Parliament passed an Act known as the ‘Royal Titles Act’ by which the Queen Victoria assumed the title of the ‘Empress of India’. The practice of Royal Darbar (1877) during Lytton was introduced to instill loyalty among the Indian princes. Again Royal Durbar at Delhi during Curzon’s period in 1903 to commemorate the coronation of Edward VII.

 

  1. After 1857, due to the Press Registration Act of 1867, Liberty of press which had been given by Metcalf (1835) was finished. The Verinacular Press Act of Lord Lytton of 1878 which empowered the district magistrates to call upon the publisher to enter into a bond undertaking not to publish anything likely to excite feelings of dissatisfaction. English papers were exempted from it. No appeal could be made. Amrita Bazar Patrika started publishing in English instead of Bengali. Indian Arms Act passed by Lytton in 1878 barred Indians from possessing weapons unless considered loyal subjects by Britishers.

 

  1. Through an act in 1860 the age limit fro Civils was reduced from 23 to 22 & it was further reduced to 21 in 1866 & probation in England extended for a period of 2 years from 1 year before. In 1864 Satyendra Nath Tagore was the first Indian to clear. In 1869, Sri Surendranath Banerjea, Sri Bihari Lal Gupta & R.C Dutt succeded. In 1877 the maximum age was further reduced from 21 to 19. Lytton proposed a plan for Statutory Civil Services in 1879 which was not to have the same status as covenanted services. However an amendment provided that a maximum of 1/6th of its member should be Indians.

 

  1. The Hunter Commission (1882) was officially known as the Indian Education Commission, appointed to review the state of education since Wood’s dispatch & headed by William Wilson Hunter.

 

  1. Ilbert Bill (1883) of Ripon (1880-84) was meant for allowing Indian judges to try Europeans. Lord Ripon repealed the Verinacular Press Act in 1882.

 

 

  1. Chief Pre Congress organizations were Land Holders Society (1837), British India Society (1843), British Indian Association (1851) in Bengal, Native Association (1852) in Madras & Bombay Association (1852) in Bombay. In 1866 Dadabhai Naroji (Grand Old Man of India & president of Congress twice) set up the East India Association in London.

 

  1. The Pune Public Conference (Ganesha Vasudev Joshi, S.H. Sathe, Chiplunkar& MG Ranade) was established in 1870. In Calcutta the Indian league (Editors of ABP- Sisir Kumar Ghosh, Shambhuchand Mukherjee, Kali Mohan Das & J.C. Dutt) was established in 1875

 

  1. The ‘Indian Association’ was set up in 1876. Its leaders were Anand Mohan Bose & Surendranath Banerjea. The Mahajan Sabha (P. Rangayya Naidu, V. Raghavachari & Anandcharlu) was estd in Madras in 1884. In 1885 Hume spoke of his own party as Indian National Union which later came to be known as Indian National Congress (during Dufferin’s tenure). The actual purpose was to strengthen British rule & act like a safety valve. Under the Leadership of William Digby, the congress opened a branch in England in 1888 & started a magazine called ‘India’.

 

  1. Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950) returned to India after 14 years stay in England in January 1893. Annie Besant arrived in India the same year & Mahatma Gandhi went to S.A in connection with the trial of a merchant, Abdulla Seth. Tilak was arrested for seditious writing in his paper “Kesari” & sentenced for six years (1908-14) imprisonment. He asked Jinnah to defend him.

 

  1. In 1904 the Administrative Secrecy Act was passed which considered breach on official secrets as a criminal offence. The same year the Indian Universities Act was passed which increased the government control on the universities.

 

  1. In the partition of Bengal, Chittagong, Rajshahi & Dacca were merged with Assam to form new province. Dacca was proposed to be its capital. The remaining part included West Bengal, Bihar & Orissa. Finally Curzon announced the partition of Bengal on October 16, 2005. This was observed as ‘black day’.

 

  1. In the 1915 session of the Muslim league Mahatma Gandhi, Sarojni Naidu & Madan Mohan Malviya took part which was presided by M.A. Jinnah. The Congress accepted the demand of separate electorates.

 

  1. Gandhiji wrote in Hind Swaraj, ‘Passive resistance (Satyagraha) is an all sided sword’. He wanted the satyagrahi to observe perfect chastity, adopt POVERTY, follow truth & cultivate fearlessness.

 

  1. Under the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 only 1 percent & under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, two & a half percent, & under Govt of India act 1935, 13 percent population became eligible voters. Elections to provincial legislatures were held in 1937 & the congress virtually swept the polls. The Muslim league could register victory only in 81 seats out of 482 Muslim seats. Viceroy Linlithgow assured Congress of his cooperation. The congress formed government in 7 states. In two states in Sindh & Assam ministries

 

were formed by congress support. In Punjab the Unionist Party & the Muslim League formed the Coalition Government & in Bengal the coalition ministry of Krishak Praja Party & the Muslim League came to power.

 

  1. In 1937, after the elections Mohammad Ali Jinnah Proposed to form a coalition ministry in the United Provinces (as they were in minority) but the congress refused. At this juncture Jinnah proposed his ‘two-nation theory’. The Muslim league celebrated 12 December 1939, the day on which the Congress Ministries resigned from office as the ‘Deliverance Day’. However communal stock flared up in 1940 when the Muslim League accepting the two nation theory in its annual session at Lahore demanded Pakistan creation. The Jamait-ul-Ulema-e-Hind, Khudai Khidmatgar opposed the demand.

 

  1. In 1939 without consulting the people of India, the British government involved the people in war. Hence the congress ministries resigned.

 

  1. The Hindu Mahasabha was established in 1915 on the occasion of the Kumbh Mela at Hardwar by Madan Mohan Malaviya. V.D Savarkar, Lala Lajpat Rai participated in it.

 

  1. On 26th November 1949, Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the president of the constituent assembly formally signed the constitution, even while expressing his dissent on 20 points. It was primarily written in English & no educational qualification was set for any posts enshrined in it. India was then divided into 562 princely states (accounting for 48 % area & 20 % population) other than British India.

 

  1. During 1941-45, no sessions of Congress were held due to arrest of all eminent leaders

 

  1. Manabendra Nath Roy (March 21, 1887 January 25, 1954) was an Indian Communist leader. Roy was

 

born as Narendranath Bhattacharya. He had a leading role in revolutionary movements in India, Mexico, the Middle East, the Soviet Union, Indonesia and China. Like Marx he was both and activist and a phisopher; in fact Lenin called him “the Oriental Marx”. Roy tried to organize an armed insurrection in India in 1915; founded the Communist Party of Mexico (1919) and the emigre Communist Party of India in Tashkent (1920); rose to occupy the highest offices of the Communist Interinational and led the Commintern’s delegation to China (1927). At the same time he authored such Marxist classics as India in Transition

 

(1922), The Future of Indian Politics (1926) and Revolution and Counter-revolution in China (1930); and founded the organ of the emigre Communist Party of India, The Vanguard (and later The Masses) and edited it for seven years (1922-28).

 

Origin of the Aryans

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The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as Dasa or Dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the Dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the Dasas, but strongly hostile to the Dasyus. The term Dasyuhatya, slaughter of the Dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.

Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the ‘Battle of the Ten Kings.’

 

Important points to remember:

  • The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans
  • The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia.
  • They arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an ongoing debate.
  • The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the Brahmavarta)
  • The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called Dasas or Dasyus
  • The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC)
  • The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC)
  • The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.

 

Impact of Liberalisation

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The leading economists of the country differ in their opinion about the socioeconomic and ecological consequences of the policy of liberalisation.Liberalization has led to several positive and negative effects on Indian economy and society. Some of the consequences of liberalisation have been briefly described here:

1. Increase in the Direct Foreign Investment: The policy of liberalisation has resulted in a tremendous increase in the direct foreign investment in the industrial and infrastructural sector (roads and electricity).

2. Enhancement in the Growth of GDP: There is a significant growth in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Prior to the liberalisation, the growth rate of GDP was around 4 per cent which rose to around 10 per cent in 2006-07.

3. Reduction in Industrial Recession: The industrial sector of India was passing through a period of recession prior to the policy of liberalisation. The foreign and private investment has checked the recession trend. This happened because of the massive investment in modernisation, expansion, and setting up of many new projects. Industries like automobiles, auto-components, coal-mining, consumer electronics, chemicals, food-processing, metal, petrochemicals, software, sport-goods, and textiles have undergone a growth rate of about 25 per cent. In addition to these, other industries, like crude-oil, construction, fertilisers, and power generation have shown an increase of about 15 per cent.

4. Employment: The heavy investments in industries and infrastructure by the Indian and foreign investors have generated great employment opportunities for the professionals, and skilled and unskilled workers.

5. Development of Infrastructure: Prior to the liberalisation, the infrastructure (roads and electricity) were in a bad shape affecting the industrial growth and economic development of the country adversely. Heavy investment in infrastructure has improved the efficiency of the industrial sector significantly.

6. Rise in Export: There is a phenomenal increase in export after liberalisation. Simultaneously India is importing raw materials, machinery, and finished products. Despite heavy imports, there has been a tangible improvement in the balance of payment.

7-Increase in Regional Disparities:The policy of liberalisation and New Industrial Policy (1991) could not reduce the regional inequalities in economic development. In fact, investments by the Indians and foreign investors have been made in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. The states like Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand are lagging behind. This has accentuated the regional imbalance and has lead to north south devide. The maximum investment so far has been done in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu. This uneven industrial development has resulted into many socioeconomic and political problems. The Naxal Movement, ULFA, and political turmoil in Jammu and Kashmir may be partly explained as being caused due to the less industrial and economic development of the regions.
8. Damage to Cottage and Small Scale Industries:Liberalisation in a country like India has adversely affected the traditional cottage and small scale industries which are unable to compete with the large-scale industries established by the multinationals. The cottage and small scale industries need protection in the form of subsidies, technology, technical access, funds, and network to export their products, Indian traditional workers such as silk workers of bihar are threatened by the imported synthetic silk.

9.Sophisticated Technology: The latest technology, being sophisticated, replaces labour and thus results in unemployment. This may be counter productive and detrimental to our industrial structure.

10. Comparatively Little Direct Investment: The foreign investors are more inclined to portfolio investment rather than direct investment. The former may be withdrawn at will at the slightest of hurdles giving a jolt to the economy of the country  and it may create instability to Indian economy.

11. Investment in Selected Industries: Most of the foreign investment comes to white-goods and not to wage-good sector. Hence, it may be fruitful in improving the high priority sector and bringing in the latest technology. This will be counter productive. India is blessed with demographic dividend and the selective investment has failed to harness it.

12. Economic and Political Freedoms are at Stake: The over-enthusiasm of liberalisation to attract more investors and foreign exchange might lead to gradual handling over of the whole economy to the multinationals. This will affect adversely our economic and political freedom.

13. Inflation: Since the new industrial policy and liberalisations, the rate of inflation is continuously increasing. A section of the society is becoming more rich and adopting the lifestyle of consumerism. As opposed to this, the absolute number below the poverty line is also increasing. The gulf between the rich and the poor may be the cause of numerous social problems resulting in social tension.

 

 

Role of World Bank, IMF WTO & other Important International Organisations in world Economy:-

by
World Bank

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), commonly referred to as the World Bank, is an international financial institution whose purposes include assisting the development of its member nation’s territories, promoting and supplementing private foreign investment and promoting long-range balance growth in international trade.

The World Bank was established in December 1945 at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. It opened for business in June 1946 and helped in the reconstruction of nations devastated by World War II. Since 1960s the World Bank has shifted its focus from the advanced industrialized nations to developing third-world countries.

Organization and Structure:

The organization of the bank consists of the Board of Governors, the Board of Executive Directors and the Advisory Committee, the Loan Committee and the president and other staff members. All the powers of the bank are vested in the Board of Governors which is the supreme policy making body of the bank.

Capital Resources of World Bank:

The initial authorized capital of the World Bank was $ 10,000 million, which was divided in 1 lakh shares of $ 1 lakh each. The authorized capital of the Bank has been increased from time to time with the approval of member countries.Member countries repay the share amount to the World Bank in the following ways:

  1. 2% of allotted share are repaid in gold, US dollar or Special Drawing Rights (SDR).
  2. Every member country is free to repay 18% of its capital share in its own currency.
  3. The remaining 80% share deposited by the member country only on demand by the World Bank.

Objectives:

The following objectives are assigned by the World Bank:

 

  1. To provide long-run capital to member countries for economic reconstruction and development.

 

  1. To induce long-run capital investment for assuring Balance of Payments (BoP) equilibrium and balanced development of international trade.

 

  1. To provide guarantee for loans granted to small and large units and other projects of member countries.

 

  1. To ensure the implementation of development projects so as to bring about a smooth transference from a war-time to peace economy.

 

  1. To promote capital investment in member countries by the following ways;

 

(a) To provide guarantee on private loans or capital investment.

 

(b) If private capital is not available even after providing guarantee, then IBRD provides loans for productive activities on considerate conditions.

 

Functions:

 

World Bank is playing main role of providing loans for development works to member countries, especially to underdeveloped countries. The World Bank provides long-term loans for various development projects of 5 to 20 years duration.

 

The main functions can be explained with the help of the following points:

 

  1. World Bank provides various technical services to the member countries. For this purpose, the Bank has established “The Economic Development Institute” and a Staff College in Washington.

 

  1. Bank can grant loans to a member country up to 20% of its share in the paid-up capital.

 

  1. The quantities of loans, interest rate and terms and conditions are determined by the Bank itself.

 

  1. Generally, Bank grants loans for a particular project duly submitted to the Bank by the member country.

 

  1. The debtor nation has to repay either in reserve currencies or in the currency in which the loan was sanctioned.

 

  1. Bank also provides loan to private investors belonging to member countries on its own guarantee, but for this loan private investors have to seek prior permission from those counties where this amount will be collected.
International Monetary Fund(IMF)

The major roles of the International Monetary Fund are as follows:

  1. To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution which provides the machinery for consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems.
  2. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, and to contribute thereby to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income and to the development of the productive resources of all members as primary objectives of economic policy.
  3. To promote exchange stability, to maintain orderly exchange arrangements among members, and to avoid competitive exchange depreciation.
  4. To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments in respect of current transactions between members and in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions which hamper the growth of world trade.
  5. To give confidence to members by making the general resources of the Fund temporarily available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity.
  6. In accordance with the above, to shorten the duration and lessen the degree of disequilibrium in the international balances of payments of members.“Articles of Agreement: Article I—Purposes,” International Monetary Fund
World Trade Organization(WTO)

The important objectives of WTO are:

1. To improve the standard of living of people in the member countries.

2. To ensure full employment and broad increase in effective demand.

3. To enlarge production and trade of goods.

4. To increase the trade of services.

5. To ensure optimum utilization of world resources.

6. To protect the environment.

7. To accept the concept of sustainable development.

Functions:

The main functions of WTO are discussed below:

1. To implement rules and provisions related to trade policy review mechanism.

2. To provide a platform to member countries to decide future strategies related to trade and tariff.

3. To provide facilities for implementation, administration and operation of multilateral and bilateral agreements of the world trade.

4. To administer the rules and processes related to dispute settlement.

5. To ensure the optimum use of world resources.

6. To assist international organizations such as, IMF and IBRD for establishing coherence in Universal Economic Policy determination.