1713-20		Balaji Vishwanath		Shahu appointed him as the Peshwa.
	1720-40		Baji Rao I		Baji Rao I succeded who was the most charismatic leader in
					Maratha HISTORY after Shivaji.He conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand
					& even raided Delhi.
	1740-61		Balaji Baji Rao		Son of Baji Rao I  Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb – different from
					the later Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II) who defeated
					the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Maratha however received a
					terrible blow at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761-Panipat
	1761-72		Madhav Rao I		Defeated Nizam, Mysore, Rohillas, Rajputs Jats. In 1771 he
					confined the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II  by giving pension.
	1772-73		Narayan Rao		Short tenure. Tussle with Ragunath Rao over Peshwa claim.
	1774-95		Madhav Rao II		Became Peshwa after treaty of Salbai supported by Nana
					Phadnavis.  In the meantime Mahadji Scindia who had brought
					Shah Alam under his control became the actual ruler of Delhi till
					his death in 1794.
	1796-1818		Baji Rao II		Incompetent son of Raghunath Rao (who was had earlier stuggled
					with Narayan Rao to become Peshwa & sided with Britishers)

 

 

 

	Bihar			After Saadat Khan, *Safdarjung* became the king  who was an impartial ruler &
				carried out many reforms & was made the wazir of mughal empire. Shuja-ud-Daula
				succeded him to throne. He was also made the wazir of mughal empire but he sided
				with Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat.
	Bengal			Murshid Quli Khan was an able ruler. Later his son in law Shuja-ud-din & his son
				Sarfaraz came in that order. Sarfaraz was defeated by Alivardi Khan of Bihar. Later
				Alivardi Khan was defeated by Raghuji Bhonsle & forced him to surrender Orissa.
				After the death of Alivardi khan his grandson Siraj-ud-daula tool over who lost to
				Britishers under Lord Clive.
	Hyderabad			Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jah founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724.
	Mysore &			Since the downfall of the Vijaynagar empire Wodeyar dynasty was ruling. But in
	Haider Ali			the 18th century two minister Nanjaraj & Devaraj usurped power early reducing the
				King Krishna Raj to a puppet. Haider Ali rose to become the Commander-in-Chief
				of the Mysore army & became the sultan after Nanjraj’s death. He was defeated by
				Peshwa Madhav Rao.
	Tipu Sultan			He defeated the combined forces of Marathas & Nizam in 1787 & soon after
				claimed himself Padshah at Seringapattam. He attempted to reduce the custom of
				jagirs& hereditary possession of poligars (small chieftans). He was a staunch
				muslim. He donated money to hindus but later got the temples abolished.
	Travancore			Martanda Verma
	Rajput States			Marwar (Ajit Singh), Amer (Sawai Jai Singh)
	Rohilkhand			Area between Agra & Awadh. Muhammad Khan Bangash ruled who was defeated
				by Maharana Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand with the help of Marathas.
	Sikhs			Ruler of one of the 12 Misls called Sukarchakiya. He with the help of his brave
				commander Hari Singh Nalwa won Multan, Kashmir & Peshawar.

1707-12	Bahadur Shah I
1712-13	Jahandar Shah
1713-19	Farukk Siyar
1719-48	Muhammad Shah Rangila
1748-54	Ahmad Shah
1754-59	Alamgir II
1759-1806	Shah Alam II
1806-1837	Akbar Shah II
1837-57	Bahadur Shah II

 

	Later Mughal Rulers
Bahadur Shah I	After the death of Aurangzeb, prince Muazzam, Azam & Kam Bakhsh fought in
1707-1712	which Mauzzam emerged victorious & assumed the title of Bahadur Shah I. Banda
	Bahadur who killed Wazir khanwas defeated by him. Was referred to as ‘Shah-i-
	Bekhabar’.
Jahandar Shah	Later after Bahadur Shah’s death, his son Jahandar Shah came to power after killing
1712-13	his other brothers with the help of Zulfikar Khan. He made peace with the Jats,
	Shahuji & honoured rajput kings.
Farrukh Siyar	Nephew  of  Jahandar  Shah,  Farrukh  Siyar  killed  him  with  the  help  of  Sayyid
1713-19	brothers – Abdulla Khan (Wazir) & Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). Farrukh Siyar
	tried to check the powers of Sayyid brothers but the latter got him killed & crowned
	two princes Raffi-ud-Darajat, Raffi-ud-Daula in quick succession. Later they made
	Muhammad Shah (Grandson of Bahadur Shah I) as the king. After his accession the
	Sayyid brothers fell victim to the intrigue of Turani Amirs.
Muhammad	During his tenure most the independent kingdoms were established: Nizam-ul-Mulk
Shah Rangila	(Deccan),  Saadat  Khan  (Awadh)  &  Murshid  Quli  Khan  (Bengal).  Iranian  King
1719-48	Nadir Shah invaded in 1739 on invitation of Saadat Khan (Awadh). The latter was
	imprisoned by Nadir Shah for not able to pay the promised ransom. Nadir Shah
	took the peacock throne & the Kohinoor diamond with him.
Ahmad Shah	Son of Muhammad Shah. During his reign Ahmad Shah Abdali (claimed himself
1748-54	ruler  of  Kandhar  after  the  assassination  of  Nadir  Shah  by  Persian  in  1747)
	repeatedly attacked. Later Ahmad Shah was killed & deposed by his own Wazir
	Imad-ul-Mulk.
Alamgir II	Actual name Aziz-ud-din. Frequency of Abdali attacks increased. [1754-59]
Shah Alam II	1759-1806
Akbar Shah II	1806-1837
Bahadur Shah II	1837-57

•  

   

  Varina Vyavastha or Varina System

   

  Vedas prescribe that all human beings should leave ignorance, get educated, select a profession for himself based on his “tatva” (basic traits) and education, take a vow to follow such a profession, and follow such a profession.

   

  Vedas classifies all profession into three viz. “Knowledge based”, “Justice / state administration based” and “finance / economics based”. Though all professions include some or other aspect of knowledge, administration and economics but the key element in each profession can be acknowledged to anyone of the given three.

   

  • A follower of a “Knowledge based” profession is called a “Brahmin”;
  • A follower of a “Justice / state administration based” profession is called a “Kshatriya”;
  • and a follower of an “finance / economics based” profession is called a “Vaishya”.
  • Anyone who is not following any profession is called a “Shudra”.

   

  These four classification of human beings are called the four “VARINAS”.

   

  However, the above are not strict rules but the core rules of classification. There can be many exceptions / inter changeover / etc in the Varinas of people. For example,

   

  – A Shudra after he acquires requisite knowledge / experience and devotes himself to any profession acquires the status of a Brahman, Kshatriya or a Vaishya, as the case may be. No shastra prohibts any erson from gaining education or bhakti.

   

  – One may at the beginning of the career be working as a manager in a commercial company. He is a Vaishya then. After years of experience he started teaching principles of management in colleges, then he becomes a Brahmin.

   

  – A Brahmin’s son / daughter would normally have more tendencies to indulge in knowledge based profession and hence become a Brahmin but he choose to go otherwise also. Similarily with others also.

   

  All humans by birth are Shudra. At different stages of life, they complete their basic education, their basic traits identified, etc depending on which they take on some profession for themselves. At such a time, that person is called to taken a re-birth. That is why, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vysyas are called DWIJ (twice born).

   

  The system of VARINA (VARINA VYAVASTHA) has nothing to do with Caste System, which is not supported by Vedic Literature. It also has nothing to so with the system of using the surinames.

   

  The Varina of a person is also often called, the Dharma of that person.

   

  Ashram System:-

   

  The word Ashrama is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Srama’ which means to exert oneself. Hence, Ashrama stands to mean (i) the place where exertions are performed, (2) the action of performing such exertions is initiated. In the words of P.H. Pradhu, “The word, therefore, signifies a halt, a stoppage on a stage in the journey of life just for the sake of rest in a sense in order to prepare oneself for the further journey. He further says that “The Ashramas then are to be regarded as resting place during one’s journey on the way to final liberation which is the final aim of life.

   

  Vyasa has remarked in the Mahabharata that the four stages of life form a ladder or a flight of four steps. These lead to Brahmana which means that through them a person can reach the region of Brahma.

   

  Ashramas are regarded as different stages in the life of an individual which train him for some period and the individual exerts himself in the same order to qualify himself for the next stage of life.

  The Four Ashramas:

  1. Brahamacharya Ashrama:

   

  The first stage of life is called Brahmacharya Ashrama. A boy enters this Ashrama through the performance of Upanayana ceremony. Through this initiation rite, a person is said to be reborn (Dwija). The age of initiation into the first stage of life differs from Varina to Varina. The initiation ceremony takes place for a Brahmin at the age of 8, for Kshatriya at the age of 10 years and a Vaishya at the age of 12 years. The Sudra child is not allowed to go through the first stage, as he was traditionally not allowed to have education. The initiation ceremony can be postponed upto 12 years for a Brahmin, up to 14 years for Kshatriya and upto 16 years for a Vaishya.After the initiation rites are over, the education begins at the residence of a teacher (Gurukula). The student is required to learn the Vedas which contain the cultural traditions of the Aryans. His speech and thought must be pure and guarded by the studies of the Vedas. The life of the student is regulated in such a manner that there is a balanced development of personality. Strict discipline is required of a student and he has to lead a hard life. He is required to restrain his senses. The control over the senses also means control over sex desires. The student is also observance of complete celibacy. In this manner the life of brahmachari is a life of discipline.The place of this Ashrama is the residence of Guru. This Ashram is completed by the time a man attains the age of 25 years. The duties of studentship include the life of austerity, service to the teacher, reverence and respect.

   

  2. Grihastha Ashrama:

   

  With the completion of the life of studentship, the next stage of life begins which is called Grihastha Ashrama or the life of a householder. This stage starts with his marriage ceremony. Marriage is more a social obligation as its main purpose is the performance of Dharma and the perpetuation of family as well as the continuation of the group through progeny.According to the Ashrama system, the Dharma of a householder consists of performing the five Maha Jajnas or the five great sacrifices.These Maha Jajnas are offered to Brahma and is called Brahma Jajna. Pitri Jajna, Deva Jajna, Bhuta Jajna and Nara Jajna. Brahma Jajna is conducted by the recitation of the Vedic Mantras. Pitri Jajna is done by offering Tarpan, that is to say, offering of water and food. This is commonly known as Sradha. Deva Jajna is done by offering burning obligations to the Gods. Bhutas are satisfied by sacrifice. Nara Jajna is performed by receiving and entering guests at home. Of these five Jajnas, the first three refers to Deva Rina, Rishi Rina and Pitri Rina.Apart from this, a householder is also supposed to offer food to animals, saints and anybody who happened to pass through, by chance. People belonging to the other three Ashramas depend upon the Grihastha and it is the duty of householder to satisfy birds, animals and insects and persons belonging to all the social rungs. The Pancha Maha Jajnas include a wider field of social duties including men and bhutas.

  This Ashram is mainly meant for the satisfaction of man’s material and emotional urges, i. e., ‘Artha’ and ‘Kama’. The Hindu as a householder is expected to fulfill his acquisitive and instinctive urges within the frame-work of Dharma. The age at which a person enters into this Ashrama is about 25 years.

   

  3. Vanaprashta Ashrama:

   

  It is the third Ashrama of life and an individual is expected to enter this stage at the age of 50. In the Vanasprastha Ashrama a person has to leave his family and the village too. He is expected to hand over all the household responsibilities to his grown up children and he must go to the forest.The person must live in the forest to bring under control his senses of enjoyment (Niyatendriyah). He has to eat only fruits and vegetables and he should not touch meat. His clothes must be of deer skin or the bark of tree. He is must practise ‘Tapas’ (penance) to purify his body and soul. In this manner a Vanaprasthi must devote himself to study and meditation.

   

  A Vanaprasthi must lead a life of self-control and friendliness and charity to others. If a person dies during Vanaprastha Ashrama he will attain Moksha.Although a Vanaprasthi used to live in the forest and his wife was allowed to live with him, it was for the sake of humanity that they lived together. The presence of the wife is permitted to facilitate the performance of social duties. The affiliations and associations of the householder come to an end.

   

  4. Sanyasa Ashrams:

   

  It is the last Ashrams of life after passing through the Vanaprastha Ashram the person enters the last Ashrams, i.e. Sanyasa Ashrams at the age of 75 years. In this Ashrams a person breaks off all attachment with the world. In this stage a person is expected to devote his entire time towards meditation to recognize subtle nature of the supreme soul and its presence in all organisms, both the highest and lowest.In different to everything meditation and concentrating his mind on Brahmana. Delighting in what refers to the soul, with himself as his only companion he shall live, waiting for his appointed time to come, desiring the bliss of final liberation.In this manner, the aim of the Ashrams system is to perform the Ashrams Dharma. The Ashrams Dharma is not only social in its implications but it emphasizes renunciation of the world in the Vanaprastha and” Sanyasa Ashrams. Ashrams system is a way of training through which the individual is to attain his end. i.e. Moksha.

   

   

   

  Sanskar Vyavasta

   

  Sanskara are dispositions, character or behavioral traits, that exist as default from birth or prepared and perfected by a person over one’s lifetime, that exist as imprints on the subconscious according to various schools of Hindu philosophy such as the Yoga school. These perfected or default imprints of karma within a person, influences that person’s nature, response and states of mind.

   

  • Garbhaadhan Sanskar:-This sanskar is done to bear progeny that brings good name to the dynasty. It’s also done to keep the dynasty running.

   

  • Pumsavana Sanskar”-This sanskars is geared towards the intellectual and mental development of the baby in the womb.

   

  • Simantonayan Sanskar:-This sanskar is done during the 4th, 6th and 8th month of pregnancy. The mother starts teaching its child with this.

   

  • Jaatakarma Sansakar:-This sanskar ensures a lot of bad omens cleared from the infant. Done for the health and age of the child.

   

  • Naamkaran Sanskar:-As clear from the name itself, this sanskar is done to decide the name of the infant. Usually, it is done on the 11th day of the birth.
• Nishkraman Sanskar:-It’s done in the 4th month after the birth. It is done to invoke the blessings of five elements of the nature.

 

• Annaprashana Sanskar
• This is done during the teething period of the child. After this, feeding the grains, cereal etc. is started.

 

• Mundan Sanskar:-The removal of the hair is done during this sanskar. It is believed to strengthen the head of the child and also increase intellectual power.

 

• Vidyaarambha Sanskar:-As clear from the name itself, it is done to start the formal education of the child.

 

• Karinavedh Sanskar:- it is a sanskar about piercing the ears. It is believed to have some relationship with the brain and acupuncture.

 

• Yagyopaveet Sanskar:-It is done during the study of the child. It is also called Upanayana sanskar which means bringing close to the eye of the guru. Through this, the child gets strength, energy, and splendor.

 

• Vedarambha Sanskar:-it is done for the starting of study of the Vedas.

 

• Keshant Sanskar:-it is related to removing the hair. This is done after completing the studies.

 

• Samavartan Sanskar:-It is done to mark the reentry of the child from the gurukula back to the society. It prepares the child for the further struggle of life.

 

• Vivah Sanskar:-It is done for marrying the child, basically oriented to keep the creation going on. It is believed that the pitririna is cleared after this.

 

• Antyesti Sanskar:-It is the last sanskar done during the sojourn on earth. After the person dies, according to various techniques mentioned in the Vedas, the body is given to fire.

 

 

 

Doctrine of Purushartha

 

The hindu attitude to life and daily conduct is oriented towards four noble ends of man.these four nobles ends are exemplified in the hindu dharmashastras as the “purusharthas”.the concept of puruushartha is the fundamental principle of the indian social ethics.the word purushathas implies attainments or life purposes.according to this concept ,the aim of every person is to attain four noble ends or purusharthas.they are arth,dharma,kama and moksha.these purusharthas govern the hindu view of life.they are the guiding principle of life for the hindus at all stages of their life.the entire hindu social organization is built on the foundation of the prusharthas.

• Dharma(the principle of righteousness):-Dharma is the supreme principle of life.it is the major end in humans life.the word dharma is derived from the sanskrit root dhri meaning to hold together ,to sustain or to preserve.it holds together the whole universe.it is essential for maintaining the stability of society.as dr.radhakrishnan has pointed out “every form of life ,every group of men has its dharma which is the law of its beings.dharma or virtue is conformity with the truth of things,adharma,rice,is opposed to it”.gita ,veda,upanishads equated dharma with rta or truth and treated it as a cosmic principle .
• From the point of view of mimasa philosophy ‘dharma means moral code of conduct to be observed by all human beings in every sphere of the is activity and it holds good for all times to come.dharmashastras also insists upon on the universal form of dharma.it was intended to enable man to reach was deemed to be the goal human existence.To mahbharatha “dharma is created for the well being of all creation”.dharma is not a religion.it is a living experience.it is the guiding principle of life,a complete rule of life.it leads way towards ultimate reality.dharma is often connected with happiness and liberation.scholars have spoken different types of dharma like samanya,raja,stree,varina,ashrama,etc.vedas constitute main source of dharma.

 

• Artha(wealth)-purusharthas:-The term ‘artha refers to wordily prosperity such as wealth and power.it is acquiring wealth by honest man.a man is unable to conduct his life so long as the material means of living are not available.without artha no desire(kama)can be satisfied.poverty is no ideal.economic stability is the basis of social stability,individual advancement and spiritual attainment. The pleasure of giving charity comes only when there is something to give.hence artha or wealth helps to sustain and enrich life.

The importance of wealth in this world was fully raised by koudilya.to him wealth is the basis of human requirements and that social well being  depends ultimately on material prosperity.to manu”the whole vedas constitute the first source of artha”.the practice of virtuous men,smritis,the truth are other source of artha.

 

• Kama(pleasure or desires):-Kama refers to the desires in man for enjoyment and satisfaction of the life of the senses.it refers to some of the innate desires and urges in man.it springs human mind,the moment one is born.it is the essence of life.with the passing of the time desires increased.these desires influence and determine social action in many ways.without it living would appear to be very cruel and meaningless.the theory of purusharthas makes sufficient provision for the enjoyment of life.

Kama involves sexual,emotional and aesthetic life.the healthy development of personality calls for the expression of emotions.kama represents such an emotional expression.it is often regarded as one of the six enemies if human beings.but it is equally true that human being cannot continue as a race without the realisation of kama which helps the propagation of species.

 

• Moksha(liberation or spiritual freedom):-Moksha is the ultimate aim.when the end of human action is salvation or liberation from the bondage of the world ,it is called moksha.it is the supreme aspiration of man.all our activities are directed to the realization of this end.the trivargas (arth,darma.kama) are the means for the attainment of this supreme end.moksha is alone called chaturvarga.through meditation,knowledge,devotion and correct action,moksha or salvation can attain.

 

 

Doctrine of Rina

The concept of rina, the human indebtedness or the primary obligation, is unique to Indian tradition. It is in fact the source of dharma, because it weans one away from desire-gratification and leads towards duty-fulfillment.

 

Rina, according to Panini the great grammarian, signifies a want or a deficiency.

 

Taittiriya Samhita it speaks about three kinds of basic indebtedness every human being carries with him or her. They are the debt one owes – (a) to his ancestors (pitr), (b) to the sages/seers (rishi) and(c) to the Gods (deva).

 

The Shathapatha Brahmana adds one more .The fourth one is the debt one owes to his fellow beings.

 

These texts suggest the ways of liquidating the debts or fulfilling the obligations one is born with. These are briefly, as under.

 

• Pitr : by bringing up a family, by getting and raising children in a proper manner.

 

• Rishi : by study and by understanding the cultural context into which one is born.

 

• Deva : by honoring , worshipping the elemental and natural (environmental) forces like sky,air,water,earth,rivers, mountains , plants etc.(Rig Veda refers to these Devas as “luminous ones”.) and

 

• Fellow beings : by cultivating compassion, fellow- feeling (saha bhava) and by showing hospitality.

 

It further says that the fulfillment of these obligations should be the preliminary aim of human beings and it would add value to their life. The Atharva remarks, pursuit of the four purusharthas would be meaningful when one fulfils ones primary obligations or is in the process of doing so.

 

Chandogya Upanishad (2.23) describes the duties in three stages of life as “off shoots or branches of Dharma” (trayo dharma_skandha). This mentions the obligations and privileges of a householder, hermit and a student. Rina is at the core of this trayo dharma

 

The Emperor Ashoka (272 to 132 BC) in his edicts highlights a person’s indebtedness (rina) to parents and elders and calls upon the people to live in accordance with the dharma and not interfere with the natural order (rta). In one of the edicts, he points out that practice of dharma is not possible for a person devoid of good conduct. In another edict he proclaims that if a person practices great liberty but does not possess self-control (sayama_bhava), purity of thought (sudhi) gratitude (kitaranta) and firm devotion (dridhabhatita), it is of no avail.

 

In Indian tradition, the practice of art, be it music, dance, literature or other forms art, is an act of worship. The traditional artist through his creation pays homage to his ancestors (pitrs) and rishis (his teachers). He views the public services he creates (temples, dams, tanks, buildings etc.) as fulfillment of his obligation to his fellow beings. Even poets, philosophers and writers conclude their work with a prayer seeking welfare of all beings.

 

Doctrine of Rita:-

Rita is the physical order of the universe, the order of the sacrifice, and the moral law of the world. Because of rita, the sun and moon pursue their daily journeys across the sky, and the seasons proceed in regular movement. Vedic religion features the belief that rita was guarded by Varuna, the god-sovereign, who was assisted by Mitra, the god of honour, and that the proper performance of sacrifices to the gods was necessary to guarantee its continuance. Violation (anrita) of the established order by incorrect or improper behaviour, even if unintentional, constituted sin and required careful expiation.

 

 

Pre-Harappan Period

		Lower Paleolithic				Hand axe & cleaver industries	Pahalgam, Belan valley (U.P),
		(600,000 – 60,000 BC)					Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, 16 R Singi Talav
		Middle Paleolithic				Tools made on flakes	Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri
		(150,000 – 40,000 BC)					hills of upper sind
		Upper Paleolithic				Tools made on flakes & blades	Rajasthan, Parts of Belan & Ganga
		(45,000 – 10,000 BC)					Valley (U.P).
		Mesolithic/ Microlithic				Parallel sided blades of chert,	Bagor (Raj), Langhnaj (Guj), Sarai
		(10,000 – 7000 BC)				chalcedony, jasper, agate	Nahar Rai, Chaopani Mando, Mahdaha,
							Damdama (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh.
		Neolithic				Earthern pots	Mehrgarh (Pak) Gufkral & Burzahom
		(8000 BC – 2000 BC)					(J&K), Mahgara, Chopani Mando,
							Kodihwa in Belan Valley (U.P.) Chirand
							(Bihar).
		Chalcolithic				Distinct painted pottery	Cultures: Ahar culture (oldest), Kayatha,
		(3000-900 B.C.)				Fire worship widespread.	Malwa culture, Salvada culture, ,
							Prabhas culture, Rangpur culture &
							Jorwe culture (newest).
		Copper Hoard Culture				Harpoons, Antennae swords,	Gungeria (M.P-largest)
						Anthromorphs
		OCP Culture				Pottery with bright red slip &	All over gangetic plain with same
		(Ochre coloured pottery)				painted in black.	regions as that of copper hoard culture.
		•Ahar people (Aravalli region) – distinctive black & red ware decorated with white designs.
		•Prabhas & Rangpur wares have a glossy suface due to which they are called lusturous red ware.
		•Jorwe culture (Maharashtra) – painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a wash.
						Select Harrapan Cities (Chalcolithic Age)
1.			Harappa		Great granary, 40 % of total seals found here; Seals usually made of steatite
			[Dayaram Sahni]		depicting elephant, bull, unicorn, rhinoceros; figurines – torso
2.			Mohenjodaro		“Mound of the dead”; largest of all cities; Great Bath; granary; city was
			[R.D Banerjee]		flooded occasionally, figurines of yogi, bronze dancing girl, seal bearing
					Pashupati.
3.			Lothal		[S.R. Rao]. Earliest cultivation of rice; Fire altars
4.			Kalibangan		[A. Ghosh]. Fire Altars showing cult sacrifice;
5.			Dholavira,		[R.S. Bisht]
6.			Banwali		[R.S. Bisht] Fire Altars;
7.			Mehrgarh		Evidences of cotton;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Indus Valley Civilization

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

	Indian Religious Books
Puranas	Divided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) &
	vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas.
Vedas	Meaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda
	(magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) &
	nity
Upanishads	About 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & most important are Chhandogya &
	Brihadranyaka. Other important are Kathak, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna etc. Do not believe in
	sacrificial ceremonies.
Brahmanas	Talks about vedic hymns, their application, stories of their origin. Each Brahmana is
	associated with one of the four VedasAitareya brahmana is associated with Rig Veda &
	Satapatha Brahmana with Yajur veda.
Aranyakas	Meaning ‘the forest books’. They discuss philosophical meditation  & sacrifice.
Vedangas	Evolved for proper understanding of the Vedas. Six in all: Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa
	(rituals), Vyakarina, Nirukta (Etymology) Chhanda (metrics) & Jyotisha.
Vedanta	Advaita Vedanta of Adi Sankara.

 

 

 

 

Ancient Books & Authors

1.	Mudrakshasha (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas);	Vishakhadatta
	Devichandraguptam
2.	Malavikagnimitram (Pushyamitra Sunga)	Kalidas
3.	Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj)	Vakpati
4.	Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya)	Bilhana
5.	Kumarapalacharita	Jayasimha
6.	Hammirakavya	Nyayachandra
7.	Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta Sadhana	Hemchandra
8.	Navashasankacharita	Padmagupta
9.	Bhojaprabandha	Billal
10.	Prithvirajcharita	Chandrabardai
11.	Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; Vikramorvasiyam	Kalidas
	Abhijnanashakuntalam (Drama);
12.	Mrichakatika	Sudraka
13.	Uttarama-Charita; Malati Madhava	Bhavbhuti
14.	Amarakosha	Amarasimha
15.	Si-yu-Ki	Hiuen Tsang
16.	Brahmasiddhanta; Khandakhadya	Brahmagupta
17.	Dasakumaracharita	Dandin
18.	Astanga-Sangraha; Astanga-Hirdaya-Samhita	Vagabhatta
19.	Panchsiddhantika; Suryasiddhanta; Brihatsamhita	Varahamihira
20.	Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa;	Rajshekhara
	Bhuvana Kosha; Haravilasa
21.	Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)	Vardhamana
22.	Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)	Devachandra
23.	Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative)	Devabhadra
24.	Prithviraja Vijay	Jayanka
25.	Karinasundari	Bilhana
26.	Saraswati Kanthabharana	Bhoja
27.	Dasharupa	Dhananjaya
28.	Harikeli Nataka	Visaladeva
29.	Prasannaraghava	Jayadeva
30.	Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita &	Bhaskaracharya
	Gola (on Astronomy)]
31.	Rajmariganka (On Astronomy)	King Bhoja
32.	Chikitsakalika or Yogamala	Tisata-Vagbhatta’s Son
33.	Mitakasara	Vijnanaeshvara
34.	Nitishastra (On Polity)	Mathara
35.	Nitisara  (On Polity)	Kamandaka
36.	Sushruta Samhita (encyclopedia on surgery)	Sushruta
37.	Charaka Samhita (Teachings of Atreya)	Charaka
38.	Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, Suandarananda	Asvaghosha
39.	Mahabhasya	Patanjali
40.	Harshacharita, Kadambari	Banabhatta
41.	Ravan Vadha	Bhattin

 

 

 

 

 

Famous Inscriptions

Inscription		King				Aspect
Junagarh Rock		Rudradaman (Saka)				Sanskrit. Says that a dam on the sudarshana lake
						was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of
						Chandragupta Maurya
Allahabad Pillar		Samudragupta				Sanskrit. Composed by Harisena
Aihole Inscription		Pulakeshin II				Mentions Harsha defeat by Pulakeshin II.
						Composed by Ravikriti Vishnuvardan son of King.
Gwalior Inscription		Bhoja				Most famous Pratihara king.
Hathigumpha		Kharvela
Boghaz koi		Proves Rig Veda to be				Indra, Varuna, Mitra, two Nasatyas mentioned
[1400 B.C.]		more than 1400 BC old.
Nanaghat Inscription		Satkarni I				Achievements of the king
		[Satvahana king]
Nasik Inscription		Gautamiputra Satkarni				Achievements of the king.
Mehrauli Iron Pillar		Chandragupta II
Mandsor Inscription		Kumaragupta I				Composed by Vatsabhatti.
Bhitari Stone pillar		Skandagupta
Tiruvalangadu		Rajendra I (Chola)				His conquests (annexed whole of SriLanka)
Uttaramerur		Cholar Period				Chola village assemblies
Besnagar Inscription		Near Vidisa (MP). Mentions Heliodorus the ambassador of king Antialcidas
		called himself Bhagvata & erected garudadhvaja in his honour of Vasudev.
				Buddhist Councils
I Buddhist Council		500 BC at		Ajatsataru .			Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify
		Rajgaha		Presided by			monastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s
				Mahakasyapa			Rajgir
II Buddhist Council		383 BC at		Kalasoka			The conservative schools insisted on monastic
		Vaishali					rules (vinaya). The secessionist Mahasangikas
							argued for more relaxed monastic
							rules.Rejection of the Mahasanghikas
III Buddhist Council		250 BC		Ashoka..			Purpose was to reconcile the different schools of
		Pataliputra					Buddhism. Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa
IV Buddhist Council		100 AD		Kanishka			Division into Hinayana & Mahayana. Theravada
		Kashmir		Presided by			Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of
				Vasumitra &			this council, and it is sometimes called the
				Asvaghosha			“council of heretical monks”.
V Buddhist Council		1871		King Mindon			recite all the teachings of the Buddha and
		Myanmar					examine them in minute detail to see if any of
							them had been altered
VI Buddhist Council		1954		P.M. U Nu
		Yangoon

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

						Nastika Shools of Indian System of Philosophy
Charvaka					Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god.
Jaina					The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention in Rig Veda.
540 BC					Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. Said to have flourished 300 yrs
					before Mahavira. Mahavira, the last Tirthankara  born in Kundagrama near Vaisali. His
					father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan & mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka,
					a Lichchhavi noble. Chetaka’s dauthter was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha.
					Mahavira was married to Yasoda. Left home at 30 & attained Kaivalya at 42.  He accepted
					4 doctrines of Parsava & added celibacy to it.  Chandragupta Maurya patronized it. Passed
					away at Pawapuri.
Buddha					Gautama (known as Siddhartha as prince) was born in Lumbini near Kapilvastu to
566 B.C.					Suddhodhana, the king of Sakya republic & Mayadevi who died seven days after his birth.
					Gautama was married to Yasodhara from whom he had a son Rahul. 6 years of meditation
					led to enlightenment. First sermon in Sarinath known as ‘Set in motion the wheel of law’.
					Eight fold paths. Buddhism denies efficacy of vedic rituals & superiority of brahmanas.
					Followers were upasakas & bhikshus. Died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar.
						Astika Schools of Indian System of Philosophy
	Vaisesika							Five elements – Earth, water, air, fire, Ether.
	Nyaya							Accepts all categories of Vaisesika & adds one Abhava (negation).
	Samkhya							Oldest of all. Twenty five basic principles first being ‘Prakriti’. Gives
								doctrine of 3 qualities – virtue (sattva), passion (rajas) & dullness (tamas)
	Yoga							Salvation through: Yama (self control), Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama,
								Pratyahara (restrain), Dharana (steady mind), Dhyana & Samadhi.
	Mimamsa							Recognises Vedas as final authority.
	Vedanta							Adi Sankara is protagonist. Ultimate reality ‘Brahma’ is one. Highest
								level of truth is that the whole world that exists is Maya. Ramanuja
								(founder of Sri Vaishnavism) differed from Sankara on his commentaries
								on Upanishads & Gita.
								Forms of Marriage
	1.		Brahma					Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class
	2.		Daiva					Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee
	3.		Arsa					A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the dowry
	4.		Prajapatya					Father gives girl without dowry & without demanding the bride price
	5.		Gandharva					Love Marriage
	6.		Asura					In which bride was bought from her father
	7.		Rakshasa					Marriage by capture, practiced especially by warriors.
	8.		Paishacha					Marriage by seduction
	Daiva marriage was considered ideal 7 paisacha the worst.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

		Dynasties of Ancient Northern India
Dynasty	King		Description
Haryanka	Bimbisara*		Founded after overthrowing the Brihadrathas. He also annexed
			Anga
	Ajatasatru		Conquered Lichhavis of Vaisali. Also defeated Prasenajit of
			Kosala. Succeded by Udayani who founded Pataliputra.
Sisunga	Sisunga		People elected Sisunga as Udayani & his 3 successors were
			unworthy
Nanda	Mahapadma		Barber but a great military genius. Defeated many dynasties.
	Nanda*
Alexander’s	Alexander		Defeated Persian King Darius III & marched to India through
Campaign			Khyber pass. King of Taxila offered help.
Mauryas	Chandragupta		Educated by Chanakya at Taxila. ‘Parisistha Parvam’ a jain text
	Maurya*		describes that he defeated the Nanda king & became ruler of
	[324-300 BC]		Magadha empire. Defeated Greek, Selecus who had succeded
			Alexander in the eastern part. Selecus sent Megasthenes to his
			court.
	Bindusara		He appointed his two sons, Sumana at Taxila & Ashoka at Ujjain.
	[300-273 BC]		Ptolemy Philadelphous of Egypt sent Dionysius to his court.
	Ashoka		Known as devanampiya & piyadasi. Edicts were in Greek &
			Aramaic in Afghanistan, Prakrit language & Kharosthi script in
			Pakistan. Prakrit language & Brahmi script in other areas. Rock
			Edict XIII (Kalinga war) Bhabru Edict (Buddhism as his religion)
			VII (all sects desire self control & purity) XII (equal respect to all
			religion) II (Dhamma – Common code of conduct). Succeded by 6
			Mauryan kings from Dasaratha to Brihadratha.
Sunga	Pushyamitra		Army chief of Maurya king Brihadratha killed him while he was
	Sunga		reviewing the army. Succeded by Agnimitra, Jethmitra &
			Vasumitra. Last king was Devabhuiti.
Meghavahanas	Kharavela		Hathigumpha inscription on Udaigiri hills near Bhubneshwar
			refers his achievement till 13th year. Ruled Kalinga.
Satvahanas of	Simuka*		Satvahanas also known as Andhras. Succeeded by Krishna,
Deccan	[235-213 BC]		Satkarni I, Satakarni II, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulmavi II, Sri
			Yajna Satakarni.
Indo Greeks	Menander		Ruled in Pakistan region. Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
			Milindapanho is related to their conversation.
Sakas	Nahapana		Sakas also known as Scythians were driven out of their original
			home land by Yueh Chi who later came to be known as Kushanas.
			Nahapana ruled in western India.
	Rudradaman		Junagarh Rock Inscription talks about him. He undertook the
	130-150 AD		repairs of the Sudarsan dam built by Pushyagupta, governor of
			Chandra Gupta Maurya. Ujjaynii was capital. Dynasty came to an
			end with the last king being defeated by Chandragupta II in 390
			AD
Kushanas	Kadphises I		Also called Kujula Kadphises.  Kadphises I was succeded by his
			son Wema Kadphises or Kadphises II – devotee of Shiva.
	Kanishka		Succeded Kadphises II. Capital of his vast empire was Purushapur
	73 – 101 AD		or modern Peshawar.

 

		The Guptas & Later Period
Guptas	Chandragupta I	Sri Gupta was the first Gupta king followed by Ghatotkacha.
	AD 320 AD	Chadragupta I was Ghatotkacha’s son.
	Samudragupta	Son of Chandragupta I. Undertook south India campaign.
		Meghavarina, King of Srilanka sent an embassy to his court to
		build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.
	Chandragupta II	Son of Samudtragupta & Duttadevi. Married his daughter
	380-413 AD	Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II of Vataka dynasty. Defeated
		Sakas & took the title of Vikramaditya.
	Later Guptas	Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta (Inflicted a crushing defeat on the
		Hunas; repair of the dam on Sudarsana lake built by chandragupta
		maurya & earlier repared by Rudradaman I.
Post Gupta	From the decline of Gupta & the rise of Harsha there flourished four major kingdoms
Peiod	in north India: Guptas of Magadha, Maukharis (around Kanauj), Maitrakas
	(Saurashtra – Vallabhi as capital), Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar (Uttaranchal).
Pushyabhuti	Harshavardhana	Son of Prabhakarvardhana of Pushyabhuti of Thaneshwar. Brother
	606 – 647 AD	of Rajyavardhana & Rajyasri (sister married to Maukhari king,
		Grahavarman of Kanauj, later killed by Sasanka of Gauda). Also
		known as Siladitya. Gauda was later divided between him &
		Bhaskarvarman, the king of Kamarupa.
Deccan &	Vatakas (Deccan) – Vindhyasakti*, *Pravarasena*. Replaced by Chalukyas.
South India	Rashtrakutas – Dantidurga I*. They succeded Chalukyas of Badami.
	Western Gangas (Mysore) – Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja*
	Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi – Mayursarman*, *Kakusthavarman*
	Pallavas of Kanchipuram – Simhavishnu, Mahendravarman , *Narsimhavarman*
	Later Kanauj was ruled by Yashovarman (discussed in Vakpati’s Gaudavaho)
Gurjara	Nagabhatta I*	After Nagabhatta I came Vatsaraja who defeated Dharmapala but
Pratiharas		was in turn defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. Dhramapala
		taking advantage installed his nominee chakrayudha at Kanauj
	Nagabhatta II	Defeated Chakrayudha & captured Kanuaj & defeated
		Dharmapala. Ramabhadra succeded him
	Bhoja	Succeded his father Ramabhadra. Defeated Rashtrakuta king
		Krishna II. He was devotee of Vishnu & took the title of
		Adivaraha.  He was followed by great ruler Mahendrapala I
Palas	Gopala*	Elected by people to end Matsyanyaya (interinal disorder). Next
		was Dharmapala who installed Chakrayudha at Kanauj but was
		defeated by Dhruva.
	Devapala	Most mighty pala king.
Rashtrakutas	Dantidurga*	Dantidurga was succeded by his uncle Krishna I (built Kailasha)
	Dhruva	Defeated both the Pratihara king Vatsaraja &Pala  Dharampala.
		Was succeded by Govinda III & later Amoghavarsha I. Later
		came Indra III (defeated pratihara Mahipala I) & Krishna III
Kamarupa	Bhaskarvarama	Ruled by single dynasty from the time of Mahabharata upto middle
		7th century till Bhaskaravarma (ally of Harsha). Dynasty came to
		an end after his death.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

South India

Cholas

Karikala

Defeated joint forces of Chera & Pandyas. Also conquered Sri

Lanka. Capital was at Puhar (Kaveripattanam)

Pandyas

Nedunjeliyan

Capital at Madurai & port at Korkai. Defeated Cholas & Cheras

Cheras

Nedunjeral

Cheras are also known as Keralaputras. Nedunjeral Adan &

Adan

Sengutturan were the greatest king.

Kings & their Court Jewels

1.

Pushyamitra Sunga

Patanjali

2.

Mahendrapala I (Pratihara)

Rajshekhara

3.

Kanishka

Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, Sushruta, Nagarjuna

4.

Chandragupta II

Kalidas, Fa-Hien, Varahamihira

Monuments of Ancient Period

1.

Udaygiri Caves

During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P.

2.

Angorwatt Temples

Suryavarman Ii

3.

Vikramashila University

Pala King Dharampala

4.

Kailash Temple (Ellora)

Rashtrakuta king Krishna I

5.

Dilwara Temple

Tejapala

6.

Rathas of Mamallapuram

Mahendravarman I (Pallava King)

7.

Khajuraho temples

Chandelas

8.

Martanda temple (Kashmir)

Lalitaditya Muktapida

9.

Gommateswara  (Son of Rishabnath)

Chamundaraya, Minister of the Ganga King, Rajamalla

(Sravanbelagola, Karinataka)

10.

Hoysalesvara Temple (at Halebid)

Ketamalla, a minister of KingVishnuvardhana (Karinataka)

Mahajanapadas

Kasi

Varanasi

Kosala

Sravasti

Kuru

Indraprashta

Kamboja

Rajput

Anga

Champa

Avanti

Ujjayini & Mahishmati

Ashmaka

Potana

Malla

Kusinagar & Pawa

Magadha

Rajgriha or Giriraj

Matsya

Virat Nagari

Vajji

Vaisali

Vatsa

Kausambhi

Surasena

Mathura

Panchala

Aichhatra

Chhedi

Shuktimati

Gandhara

Taxila & Pushkalavati

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mahajanapadas

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Administrative Units & Their Ancient Names

S	Administrative Part	North India	South India
1.	Provinces	Bhukti	Mandalam
2.	Divisions	Vishaya or Bhoga	Kottams or Vallandadu
3.	District	Adhistana/Pattana	Nadu
4.	Tehsil	Vihtis	Pattala/Kurram

 

Jargon of Ancient Period

Lohit Ayas	Copper	Pradeshika	Head of district Administration
Syam Ayas	Iron	Nagarka	City administration
Vanik	Traders	Jesthaka	Chief of a Guild
Gramini	Village Head	Prathamakulika	Chief of artisans
Bhagadugha	Tax collector	Uparika	Governor of Bhukti
Sthapati	Chief Judge	Didishu	Remarried woman
Takshan	Carpenter	Amatya	High official
Niska	Unit of currency	Dvija	Initiation into education
Satamana	Unit of currency	Yukta	Revenue officer in the Mauryan period.
Pana	Term used for coin	Rajjukas	Land measurement & fixing land revenue
Shresthi	Guilds	Sabha	Assembly of few select ones
Vihara	Buddhist Monastery	Samiti	Larger Assembly
Chaitya	Sacred Enclosure	Dharamamahamatya	Most important post created by Asoka.

 

 

 

 

Miscellaneous Facts:

 

1. The Sangama literature [0-400AD] consists of 30,000 lines of poetry divided into two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (older) & Pattupattu (newer). Established by Pandyan kings of Tamil region.

 

2. The credit to complete the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes to James Prinsep.

 

3. Most of the modern scripts of India including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla have developed from Brahmi script. Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari & Manashera are written in Kharoshthi.

 

4. The earliest coins were punch marked silver & copper coins. They bear only symbol & no inscription or legend. Kushanas (Vima Kadphises – figure of Siva standing beside a bull) issued mostly gold coins.

 

5. Buddha did not visit Taxila in his life.

 

6. Some of the important rock painting sites are Murhana Pahar (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lakha Juar (M.P.) & Kapagallu (Karinatka).

 

7. The extent of Indus valley civilization was Sutkagendor (Baluchistan), Alamgirpur (Meerut), Daimabad (N. Maharashtra) & Manda (J & K). Harrapan civilization is often referred to as Bronze Age civilization. No unambiguous depiction of horse found on any seal. The largest number of seals depict unicorn.

 

8. Inscription was from right to left but if more than one line than alterinated to left to right & vice versa.

 

9. Yoga was in vogue in Indus civilization. Shiva, Mother goddess, trees, linga, yoni were worshiped. Chanhudaro is the only city without a citadel & Surkotada is the only site where the actual remains of a horse have been found.

 

10. Decline of Harrapa: Wheeler (Barbarian Aryans attack), John Marshall (environment degradation).

 

11. The Nadisukta hymn of Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include Ganga in the east & the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. Saraswati is considered to be the most important. Zero was known in rig vedic times

 

12. In the vedic age the varinas were not rigid but they became so in the later vedic period & became birth based rather than profession based. Untouchability had not yet reared its ugly head. Jati had not become a rigid system. Bali which was a voluntary gift to chief earlier became a regular tax in the later vedic age.

 

13. Moksha can be acquired by Gyan, Bhakti & Karma. Four dynasties stand out prominently in the sixth century B.C are Haryankas of Magadha, Ishvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa & the Pradyotas of Avanti.

 

14. During the time of Ashoka, Pataliputra was administered by a city council of 30 members divided into a board of 5 members each. Sales tax on goods was 10 %. The Ashokan Pilar with Lion Capital is located at Lauriya Nandangarh, Pillar capital from Rampurva & Capital from Sarinath. Seven rock cut chaitya

 

 

 

caves in the Barabar & Nagarjuni hill show that the tradition of rock cut caves in India began with the

 

Mauryas.

 

15. The indo-Greeks were the first whose coins carried the portraits of kings & their names. Also they were the first rulers to issue gold coins.

 

16. In the south the old phase is known as the megalithic phase with the burials being marked by abundance of iron tools & a Black & red pottery. It appears there was an abrupt change from Neolithic to iron age, without any significant Chalcolithic or Bronze age.

 

17. Anuloma (marriage between male of higher varina& female of lower varina) was considered better than Pratiloma (vv). Grihasta ashram had the duties of yajna, adhyayana &dana.

 

18. Hinayana was the old order. Mahayana introduced concept of Bodhisttavas, worship of Buddha as god (Hinayanists considered him just a great teacher), salvation of all beings, Sanskrit as new language. The development of Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to Nagarjuna who propounded Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.

 

19. The Mathura & Gandhara schools of art flourished during Kushana period. Mathura school had the distinction of producing the first image of Buddha & Gandhara school was a hybrid of Indo-Greek form.

 

20. The Stupas as Sanchi, Sarinatha, Amaravati, Bharhut are the best examples. I-tsing came to India in 7^th century after spending several years in Sumatra & Sri Vijaya learning Buddhism.

 

21. In south India, among the Nayannar saints, Tirumular’s Tirmurais are prominent. Saiva saints (Nayannars) were 63 in number. Lingayat (founded by Basava – Kalachuri) was other important sect of Saivism in south India influenced by both Sankara & Ramanuja. Vaishnave saints known as Alvars are traditionally 12 in number. Collection of their work is known as Nalayiraprabandham.

 

22. The first Jaina council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of third century BC & resulted in compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. In the sixth century A.D. the second Jaina council was held at Valabhi under Devaradhi Kshamasramana & Jain canon was defined.

 

23. The avatars of Vishnu are matsya, kurma (tortoise), varah (boar), narasimha, vaman (dwarf), parasurama, rama, Krishna, Buddha (the enlightened one) & kalki (to appear).

 

24. West Bengal was known as Gauda & East Bengal as Vanga. Utkala (Orissa), Pragjotishpur (Assam).

 

25. The king of Suvarinadwipa (modern Malaya), Balaputradeva erected a monastery at Nalanda & requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance.

 

26. The philosophy of Sankaracharya (Adi Sankara) is known as Advaita meaning ‘non dual’. He believed that absolute reality called ‘Brahma’ is non dual. Jyotirmatha at Badrinath, Sharadapitha at Dwakra,

 

 

 

 

 

Govardhanamatha at Puri & Shringerimatha in south. He organized Ascetics in ten orders – Giri, Puri (city), Bharati (learning), Vana (wood), Aranya (forest), Parvata, Sagara, Tirtha, Ashrama& Saraswati.

 

27. Angkorvat temple dedicated to Vishnu & the famous Borobudur stupa in Java. The Sailendra dynasty ruled over SE Asia & followed Mahayana Buddhism.

 

28. Eastern King (Samrat), Western King (Suvrat), Northern king (Virat), Southern King (Bhoja). After partition of India the largest number of Harappan settlements have been found in Gujarat.

 

29. The utensils of the Harappan people were made of clay. Lead was not known to the Indus valley people. The Aryans came from Central Asia is widely accepted. The Vedic Aryans first settled in the region of Sapta Sindhu.

 

30. The Gayatri Mantra is addressed to Savitri (associated with sun god). Two highest gods in the Vedic religion were Indra (war god) & Varuna (ocean god). Division of vedic society The oldest mention of varina system (four classes) is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda. The dasas & dasyus mentioned in the Rig Veda refer to non-Aryans.

 

31. The Hindu social sacraments such as marriage are performed on the basis of ritual described in the Grihyasutras. The symbols associated with the five great events of the Buddha are birth (lotus & lion), great renunciation (horse), attainment of knowledge (banyan tree), first sermon (wheel), death (stupa & foot prints). According to Buddha the cause of all sorrows is Trishna (attachment).

 

32. Vinayak Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka contain teachings of the Buddha. Jatakas are stories of Buddhas previous life. Outside India, Buddhism was first accepted in Sri Lanka.

 

33. The Mauryan sculptors had gained highest perfection in the carving of Pillars & the most striking feature is their polish. Two great Buddhist stupas rebuilt during the Sunga (were Brahmanas) Period were Dhammekh stupa at Sarinath & the stupa at Sanghot.

			North India
Ghadvalas			Chandradeva*. Jaichandra fought Muhammad Ghur
Chandellas of Jejakabhukti/Bundelkhand			*Vidyadhara* & Yashovarman
Paramaras of Malwa			Vakpati Munjal & *Bhoja*
Chahamanas/Chauhans of Sakambhari			Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva, *Prithviraj III* (Chauhan)
Kalachuris of Tripuri			Kokalla, Gangeyadeva & *Karina* (Rajshekhara)
Chalukyas/Solankis of Gujarat			Bhima I & *Jayasimha Siddharaja*
Kashmir			Avantivarman (supplanted Karkota dynasty to which
			belonged Lalitaditya Muktapida.
	East & the North East
Bengal (Sena dynasty)			Lakshmanasena (last Hindu ruler of Bengal)
Orissa			Avantavarman Chodaganga (Mother daughter of Rajendra
			Chola) of Eastern Gangas & Narsimha I (sun temple)
Assam (Ahoms)			Ahoms, a Shan tribe settled in mid 13th Century.
	Deccan & the South
Chalukyas of Kalyani			*Vikramaditya VI* (Introduced Chalukya-Vikram era)
			Bilhana’s Vikramanankadevacharita is based on him
Yadavas of Devagiri			Bhillama V*, *Simhana*
Kakatiyas of Warangal			Ganapati (ruled for 60 years)
Cholas			Vijayalaya*, Rajaraja the Great, *Rajendra I*, Rajadhiraja,
			Rajendra II, Kulottunga I
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra			Nrpakama*, Vishnuvardhan, Ballala II & Ballala III
Pandyas			*Jatavarman Sundara.Pandya I*
	Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD)
Slave Dynasty				Sayyid Dynasty
1206-10	Qutubuddin Aibak.			1412-20		Khizr Khan
1210-36	Shamsuddin Iltutmish			1420-33		Mubarak Shah
1237-41	Razia Sultana			1433-43		Muhammad Shah
1241-46	Bahram Shah & Masud Shah			1443-51		Alauddin Alam Shah
1246-66	Nasirruddin Mahmud			Lodhi Dynasty
1266-86	Balban			1451-89		Bahlul Lodhi
1286-90	Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimur			1489-1517		Sikander Lodhi
Khalji Dynasty				1517-26		Ibrahim Lodhi
1290-96	Jallaluddin Khalji
1296-1316	Allauddin Khalji
1316-20	Mubarak Shah & Khusrau khan
Tughlaq Dynasty
1320-25	Ghiasuddin Tughlaq
1325-51	Muhammad bin Tughlaq
1351-88	Firuz Shah Tughlaq
1388-94	Mohammad Khan, Ghiasuddin Tughlaq Shah II,
	Abu Baqr, Nasiruddin Muhammad, Humayun
1394-12	Nasirrudin Mahmud Tughlaq

 

		Delhi Sultanate
Slave	Qutbuddin	Died while playing Chaugan. Aram Shah (short period)
	Aibak
	Shamsuddin	He defeated Yalduz of Ghazni & Qubacha of Multan. Captured the
	Iltutmish	fort  of  Ranthambor,  Lakhnauti.  Organized  the  iqta  system  (land
		assignment) & currency (introduced copper tanka & silver jital).
	Razia Sultana	Married  Malik  Altunia  (Governor  of  Bhatinda).  Turkish  Aamirs
		played  the dominant  role  &  after Razia,  they enthroned  Bahram
		Shah, Masud Shah & Nasiruddin Mahmud in that order.
	Balban (Ulugh	Balban  was  Turkish  slave  of  Iltutmish.  He  poisoned  his  master
	Khan)	Nasiruddin Mahmud. Killed the rebel governor of Bengal, Tughril
		Khan.  He  revived  the  practice  of  sijda  (prostration)  &  paibos
		(kissing monarch’s feet).
		Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimurs had short duration.
Khalji	Jalaluddin Khalji	Descended at the age of seventy. Later Alauddin murdered his uncle
		& father in law Jalaluddin & seized the throne.
	Alauddin Khalji	Lay  seige  to  Ranthambor  which  was  under  redoubtable  Hammir
		Deva  which  continued  till  one  year.  Later  Chittor  under  Ratan
		Singh (wife Padmini) fell & was renamed Kizhrabad. Malik Kafur
		campaigned	against	Kaktiyas	(Warangal),	Hoysalas
		(Dwarasamudra) & Pandyas. Mubarak Shah (son) & Khusrau khan
		had short rule.
		Kharaj  (land  tax  –  50%),  Charai,  Gharii  (dwelling  tax).  First  to
		introduce permanent standing army, dagh &   chehra. Afghans &
		Sultan’s Indian officers rose to prominence.
Tughlaq	Ghiyasuddin	Earlier called Ghazi Malik. Ghiasuddin had repelled mongol attack
	Tughlaq	under khaljis before ascending throne. Attaked Kaktiyas & Bengal
		succesfully. Founded third city of Delhi – Tughlaqabad.
	Muhammad bin	Open consorting with Hindus & Jogis. Killed Ulemas, qazis who
	Tughlaq	rose in rebellion. Shifted capital to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad),
		token currency (bronze coin-jittal). Shifted to Swargadwari during
		famine. At his death Barani commented, ‘at last the people got rid
		of him & he got rid of the people’. First sultan to visit the shrine of
		Moinuddin Chisti. Disciple of Shaikh Alauddin & Jinaprabha Suri.
	Firuz Shah	Not a military leader. Conqured Thatta, Orissa (uprooted Jagannath
	Tughlaq	idol),  Nagarkot.  Distributed  iqtas, made  them heritable increased
		salaries.   Founded   Fatehabad,   Hissar,   Firuzpur,   Jaunpur   &
		Firuzabad. Built canals. Influence of Ulema revived. First muslim
		ruler to impose Jaziya on Brahmins but abolished Ghari & Charai.
		Visited  the  shrine  of  Salar  Masud  Ghazi  &  became  fanatical.
		Removed   paintings   from   palace.   Got   many   sanskirt   works
		translated in Persian

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

		South India
Vijaynagar	Harihara &	These brothers were released by Muhammad Tughlaq & they laid
	Bukka	the foundation of Vijaynagar empire (Sangama dynasty)
	Deva Raya I	Succeded  his  father  Harihara  II.  Lead  a  crushing  defeat  against
		Sultan  Firuz  Shah  Bahmani.  Constuction  of  dam  across  the
		Tungabhadra. Italian, Nicolo de Conti came during his period.
	Deva Raya II	Sometimes called Immadi Deva Raya. One of the greatest Sultan.
Bahamani	Firuz Shah	Great king. Lost to Deva Raya I & abdicated throne in favour of his
	Bahman	brother Ahmad Shah I who transferred Bahmani Kingdom capital
		from  Gulbarga  to  Bidar.  Later  with  the  help  of  Iranian  prime
		minister Mahmud Gawan, Ahmad Shah I expanded considerably.
		Later Bhahmani kingdom got divied into five regions – Golconda,
		Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar & Bidar.
Tuluva	*Kishna Deva	After Deva Raya II came Suluva dyansty, which was replaced by
	Raya*	Tuluva dynasty whose geatest ruler was Krishna Deva Raya. Ablest
		of Vijaynagar soverigns. After him Rama Raja succeded.
		Delhi Sultanate Continued
Timur	Timur 1398 AD	During the reign of Mahmud Tughlaq who fled the city. He
Invastion		assigned Delhi to Khizr Khan & hence Sayyid dynasty was born.
Sayyids	Khizr Khan	Khizr Khan’s reign as well as that of his successors, Mubarak Shah,
		Muhammad Shah & Alauddin Alam Shah was spent trying to
		control the rebellious leaders (esp. Khokhars led by Jasrath).
Lodis	Bahlul Lodi	First dynasty to be headed by Afghans. Principal event of Bahlul
		Lodi’s life was the annexation of Juanpur kingdom.
	Sikander Lodi	Contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat & Rana Sanga of
		Mewar. The rent rolls of his reign formed the basis during Sher
		Shah Suri period. Imposed the Jaziya. The Bahluli coin remained in
		circulation till Akbar’s rule. He was the only sultan to be killed in
		the battle field.
		Smaller States
Assam	Ahoms – Greatest ruler during this peiod was Suhungmung
Gujarat	Muzaffar’s Shah grandson, Ahmad Shah I founded new capital Ahmedabad. Was the
	first sultan to levy Jaziya on hindus of Gujarat. *Mahmud Begarha* was the greatest
Mewar	Rana Kumbha. His grandson was Rana Sanga.
Amber	Under Prithviraj who fought under Rana Sanga at Khanua
Jaunpur	Under Sharquis. Jaunpur is in eastern U.P.
Kashmir	*Zianul Abidin*. Abolished Jaziya. Got Ramayana & Mahabharata translated into
	Persian. Allowed Kashmiri pandits to return to the state.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

	Mughal Empire
Babur	Zahiruddin  Muhammad  Babur.  Ascended  throne  of  Farghana.  Daulat  Khan  Lodi,
1526-30	govenror of Punjab invited him to dethrone Ibrahim Lodi but later retracted. Ibrahim Lodi
	perished in 1526 at Panipat. Battle of Khanua in 1527 against Rana Sanga in which Babur
	won by effective use of artillery & mounted archers. Died around 1529 & burried at
	Kabul. Introduced Char Bagh (symmetric gardens).
Himayun	His early fight was with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat whom he defeated but did not depose.
1530-56	In  Bihar  the  Afghans  rallied  under  Sher  Shah  Suri.  At  the  battle  of  Chausa  in  1939
	Himayun was defeated by Sher Shah. He finally left India in 1544 for the Safavid court. A
	decade after the death of Sher Shah, Himayun occupied back Delhi but died within seven
	months after a fall from the steps of his library.
Sher Shah	Son of a small Jagirdar from Jaunpur. Defeated Raja Maldeo of Marwar in the battle of
1540-45	Samel in 1544 & also won Chittor. He realized Jaziya from Hindus. Revived system of
	Dagh & Chehra. Introduced a system of crop rates form the first time. Introduced uniform
	standard gold, silver & copper coins replacing the debased coins & introduced uniform
	weights. Maintained army through Sawars. Died in 1545 (5 years rule).
Akbar	Born  in  Amarkot.  Bairam  Khan  invited  Hemu  (Afhan  assumed  title  of  Hemchandra
1556-1605	Vikramaditya) in 1556 at the second battle of Panipat in which Hemu was slained. Later
	Akbar discharged Bairam Khan & married his widow. Akbar’s foster mothers son Adam
	Khan  won  Malwa  defeating  Baz  Bahadur.  Won  at  Gondwana,  Chittor  (Udai  Sing),
	Ranthambor & Marwar. Rana Pratap ascended Mewar after the death of Udai Singh. In
	1576 the Haldi ghati war between Man Singh (grandson of Bhara Mal of Amber who
	entered imperial services) & Rana Pratap. In 1571 Akbar shifted his capital to Fatehpur
	Sikri.  Later  marched  against  Ahmedabad,  Kabul  (deposed  Mirza  Hakim).  In  1585  he
	trasnferred his capital to Lahore. Later won Baluchistan, Qandhar, Ahmadnagar (Chand
	Bibi), Khandesh (Akbar’s last major miliary campaign). In 1579 he abolished Jaziya. He
	issued Mahzar which entitle him to choose one of the interpretations of Muslim law. Only
	Raja Birbal accepted Din-i-Ilahi. Todar Mal, Bhagwan das, Man Singh declined it. He
	abolished the position of wazir after Bairam khan. Revived chehra & dagh.
Jehangir	Jehangir’s elder brother Khusrau revolted thrice against Akbar & was blinded. He became
1605-27	the  first  ruler  to  conquer  Kangra.  Amar  Singh,  Son  of  Rana  Pratap  at  Ajmer  also
	surrendered. The Persians got control of Qandhar back in their second attempt. Deccan
	(ruled by Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar) was subdued again by prince Khurram. Jehangir
	ordered the murder of fifth sikh guru Arjun Dev (the first to be murdered by Mughals).
	Visited dargah of Moinuddin Chisti several times. Married Iranian widow (Mehrunisa),
	who was given the title Nur Jahan.  Nur Jahan’s brother was Asaf khan whose daughter
	Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Banu) was married to Shah Jahan.
Shah	Sent his two sons Dara  Shukoh& Aurangzeb as hostages to his fathers court. He was
Jahan	helped in his throne capture by his father in law, Asaf Khan. Ordered execution of his
1628-58	brothers  &  their  sons  after  accession.  Increased  control  over  Bundelkhand  (Ruled  by
	Jehangir’s hard core friend Bir Singh Deo’s son Jujhar Singh). Qandhar was capture for a
	brief period but lost back to the Safavids. His Peacock throne & capital Shahjahanabad are
	remembered. Reformed the zat & sawar system. Iranis & Turanis dominated the nobility.
	Instituted month scales on the basis of difference between official estimate of income
	(Jama) & actual amount collected (hasil).
Aurangzeb	War of succession between Dara, Shah Shuja, Auranzeb & Murad – all sons of Mumtaz
1658-1707	Mahal. Mir Jumla was deputed by Aurangzeb to restore authority in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa.
	Later in Assam Ahom king agreed to be a vassal of Mughals. He banned Nauroz, the

 

Persian new year, banned painters, musicians, drinking & women pilgrimage. Pilgrimage tax on Hindu abolished by Akbar reinstated. Destroyed the Keshava Rai Temple at Mathura built by Bir Singh Bundela.Reimposed Jaziya tax. His son prince Akbar revolted

 

• was sheltered by Maratha ruler Sambhaji. Aurangzeb lay seize on Bijapur & Golconda

 

• He was also known as Alamgir.

 

Shivaji	Shivaji tutor was Dadaji Kond-deva. Shivaji killed Afzal Khan (general of Ali Adil Shah
	II) while meeting. Later he almost defeated the governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan who
	was replaced by Prince Mauzzam on orders of Aurangzeb. Raja Jai Singh was given the
	responsibility of tackling Shivaji who won & conducted the treaty of Purandhar. Later
	Shivaji visited mughal court & was captured but escaped.
Later	Shivaji – Sambhaji – Rajaram (Sambhaji’s brother). In the meanwhile Sambhaji’s son
Marathas	Shahu was taken to the Mughal household. Later when Rajaram died, his widow Tara Bai
	declared her four year old son Shivaji II, king & herself the regent. Later Shahu was
	released by Bahadur Shah I who appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa. Baji Rao I
	succeded  who  was  the  most  charismatic  leader  in  Maratha  history  after  Shivaji.He
	conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand & even raided Delhi. He was succeded by his son  Balaji
	Baji Rao (Nana Saheb – different from the later Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II)
	who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Maratha however received a terrible blow at
	the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761 at Panipat.

				Selective Treaties & Battles
Treaty of Purandhar				Jai Singh defeated Shivaji. Shivaji had to surrender 23 out of the thirty
				five forts held by him.
Treaty of Palkhed				Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to recognize Maratha claimsto chauth
				& sardeshmuhi in the Deccan (durin Baji Rao I’s tenure).
Treaty of Warina				Claims of Tara Bai settled by granting her Kolhapur
Treaty of Bhalke				Marathas won large parts of Khandesh by invading Karinataka.
Battle of Talikota (1565)				Between Vijayanagara Empire (Rama Raya, son of Achutya Raya) and
				Deccan sultanates, resulted in Vijayanagar’s defeat.
				Books of Medieval Period
	1.	Taj-ul-Maasir			Hasan Nizami
	2.	Tabaqat-i-Nasiri			Minhaj Siraj
	3.	Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi (Most important work of sultanate period)			Ziauddin Barani
		Fatwah-i-Jahandari
	4.	Futuh-us-Salatin (establishment of Bahmani Kingdom)			Isami
	5.	Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi			Afif
	6.	Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi			Yahya Sirhindi
	7.	Akbar Nama			Abul Fazal
	8.	Tabaqat-I-Akbari			Nizammudin Ahmad
	9.	Muntakhab-al-tawarikh			Badauni
	10	Badshahnama/Padshahnama			Abdul Hamid Lahori
	11	Muntakhab-ul Lubab (Aurangzeb’s reign)			Khafi Khan
	12	Mirat-i-Ahmadi			Ali Muhammad Khan
	13	Padmavat (on Padmini – wife of Ratan Singh, King of Chittor)			Malik Mohammad Jaisi
	14	Tughluq Nama, Tarik-i-Alai, Nuh Sipihr, Ashiqa			Amir Khusro
	15	Marwar ra Pargani ri Vigat (Info on Rajasthan)			Munhta Nainsi

 

16	Chandayan	Maulana Daud
17	Himayun Nama	Gulbadan Begum
18	Bhavartha Dipika	Gyaneshwara
19	Safarinama or Rihla	Ibn Batuta
20	Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Autobiography)	Jehangir
21	Tarikh-i-Shershahi	Abbas Sarwani
22	Tuzuk-i-Baburi/ Baburinama (in Turkish –Autobiography)	Babur
23	Shahjahannama	Inayat Khan
24	Dayabhaga	Jimuta Vahna
25	Periya Puranam (12th book of Tamil Veda called Tirumurai)	Shekkilar
26	Sur Sagar (Life of Krishna)	Sur Das
27	History of Aurangzeb, The fall of the Mughal Empire	Jadunath Sarkar
28	Mahmud of Ghazni	Mohammad Habib
29	The Administration of the Delhi Sultanate	I.H. Qureshi
30	Foundation of Muslim Rule in India	A.B.M. Habibullah
31	Agrarian System of Mughal India	Irfan Habib

 

Monuments of Medieval Period
College of Ajmer (Converted to Adhai din ka Jhompra)	Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva
Rudra Mahakala temple, Siddhapura	Jayasimha Siddharaja
Jagannath Temple at Puri	Anantavarman Chodaganga
Sun Temple, Konark	Narasimha I ( E. Gangas)
Brihadesvara/Rajarajeswara temple at Thanjavur	Rajaraja the Great
Quwwat-al-Islam mosque, Delhi	Qutbuddin Aibak
Adhai din ka Jhompra	Qutbuddin Aibak
Himayun’s Tomb	Akbar’s step mother Haji Begum
Tomb of Sher Shah at Sasaram	Sher Shah
Agra Fort	Akbar
Buland Darwarza (commemorate Gujarat victory)	Akbar
Shalimar Garden	Shah Jahan
Badshahi Mosque at Lahore (largest in subcontinent)	Aurgangzeb
Man Mandir, Gwalior	Man Singh
Hauz Khas	Alauddin Khalji
Akbar’s Mausoleum at Sikandara	Akbar. Completed by Jehangir.
Madrasa at Bidar	Mahmud Gawan

 

		Kings & their Court Jewels
1.	Lakshmansena	Jayadeva, Halayudha, Sridharadasa.
2.	Vikramaditya VI (Chalukya)	Bilhana (Vikramanankadevacharita) Vijnanaeshvara (Mitakshara)
3.	Sharqis of Jaunpur	Malik Muhammad Jaisi
4.	Akbar	Tansen, Todar Mal, Tulsidas (just contemporary)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

					Prominent Foreign Travellers
	1.		Marco Polo			Venetian Traveller visited Pandya kingdom
	2.		Ibn Batuta			Muhammad bin Tughlaq
	3.		Nicolo Conti			Italian visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Deva Raya I
	4.		Abdur Razaq			Visited the court of Zamorin in Calicut & travelled to Vijaynagar
						during the reign of Deva Raya II
	5.		Nikitin			Russian, visited Bahmani kingdom & Gujarat
	6.		Nuniz			Portuguese, stayed at Vijayanagar during Krishna Deva Raya
	7.		Ralph Fitch			British during Akbar’s reign
	8.		William Hawkins			English merchant. Received a mansab from Jehangir
	9.		Thomas Roe			Ambassador of English King James I to Jehangir’s court.
						Obtained trade concessions. Wrote “Embassy”.
	10.		Peter Mundy			English traveller during Shah Jahan’s reign.
	11.		Tavernier			French jweller. Aurangzeb’s reign.
	12.		Bernier			French Physician. Most important account of all European.
						Aurangzeb’s reign. Wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’.
	13.		Nicolo Manucci			Italian. Aurangzeb’s reign.
						Jargon of Medieval Period
	Mamluk			White slaves			Ur	Common village assembly (Chola  period)
	Muqaddam			Village head			Nagaram	Assembly of merchants (Chola  period)
	Sondhar			loans			Sabha	Assembly of Brahmins (Chola  period)
	Khots			Village head			Khutba	A sermon made in Friday mosque
	Sharia			Muslim law			Madad-i-Maash	Tax free grants of land
	Subas			Provinces			Waqf	Grants to muslim religious establishment
	Mir Bakshi			Military department			Pargana	Around Hundred villages.
	Ummah			Muslim believers			Sadr us sadur	Ecclesiastical affairs
	Mir Saman			Supply department			Qanungos	Keeper of revenue records
	Shiqdar			Headed Pargana.			Zabt	Revenue based on land measurement
	Amils			Revenue officer			Ibadat Khana	House of worship (Fatehpur Sikri)
	Hundis			Bills of Exchange			Diwan	Function of finance (Akbar’s time)
	Dhimmis			Non-Muslim people			Wujuhat	Taxes on cattle,grazing,orchards.
	Vimans			Towers of temple			Shaikhzadas	Indian Muslims nobility
	Din			Religion			Peshwa	Prime minister (Shivaji)
	Ganj			A grain market			Amatya	Revenue minister (Shivaji)
	Gomashta			Commercial agent			Sumant	Foreign minister (Shivaji)
	Hun			A gold coin			Bargir	Cavalrymen (horse belonged to leader)
	Dam			Coin (1/4th of rupee)			Nankar	Portion of revenue given to Zamidar
	Sarkar			A number of Paragana			Diwan-i-Arz	Ministry of Military Affairs
	Khums			Tax on plunder			Diwan-i-Insha	Ministry of Royal Correspondences
	Zawabit			Non Shariat state laws			Diwan-i-Risalat	Religiour affairs
	Faujdar			Incharge of Sarkar			Diwan-i-Kul	Wazir or chief imperial fiscal minister.
	Malfuzat			Sayings of sufi saint			Diwan-i-Wizarat	Department of finance
	Tankah			Silver coin			Khalisa	Land revenue directly for imperial treasury
	Kanqah			Sufi lodging			Wilayat	Spiritual territory of a sufi
	Misl			Sikh Regions  (12)			Umra	Collective term for nobility
							Watandar	Desais & Deshmukh (collective term)

 

Extent of Mughal Empire at Akbar’s Death

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Miscellaneous Facts:

 

1.Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 AD. The Quran alongwith the Hadith (sayings of the prophet) is venerated as supreme sources of authority in Islam. Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina is known as Hijra & the muslim calendar commences from this year. At the battle of Badr Muhammad first wielded sword to assert his prophethood. Quibla the direction to be faced during prayer changed from Jerusalem to Mecca.

 

2.Prophet’s son-in-law Ali was regarded as lawful immediate by some section (shiis) while other group considered his close followers Abu Bakr, Umar & Uthman as legal heir (came to be known as Sunnis).

 

3.Mahmud of Ghazni was the son of Subuktigin (founder of Ghaznavid dynasty). Subuktgin had defeated the Hindhshahi ruler Jaipal. Utbi was the court historian of Ghazni. Mahmud raided 17 times which

 

 

 

 

 

included Nagarkot, Mathura, Kanauj & Somanath temple (1025 AD when Chalukya king Bhima I was ruling Gujarat). He patronized Al-Beruni.

 

4.Muhammad Ghur first invasion was against Multan which he won easily. His invasion of Gujarat ended in a crushing defeat at the hands of the Chalukyan forces. Then followed Battle of Tarain I & II, invasion of Ghadavala ruled by Jaichandra. After Ghur’s death his senior slave Tajuddin Yalduz occupied Ghazni, Qubacha occupied Multan, Ali Mardan took Lakhnauti (Bihar-Bengal) while Aibak took Delhi. At the same time Bhaktiyar Khalji, another slave raided province of Bihar destroying monasteries of Nalanda & Vikramshila & even attacked the Bengal ruler Lakshmanasena. Eastern Chalukyas ruled at Vengi.

 

5.Chola king Rajendra I captured whole of Sri Lanka & reasserted Chola soverignity over Kerala & Pandyan country. He conquered north upto Ganga & assumed the title of Gangaikonda. Marco Polo visited the Pandyan Kingdom around 1293 AD.

 

6.Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign saw the rise of two independent states in south – Vijaynagar & Bahamani. The Tungabhadra doab had been a source of conflict between the Cholas & the western Chalukyas, between Yadavas & Hoysalas as well as between the Vijaynagar & the Bahmani Kindom.

 

7.The largest indigenous industry during the Delhi sultanate period was that of textiles. During Firuz Shah the slaves rose to an all time high. While India’s indigenous architecture is trabeate (space spanned by beams laid horizontally), the Islamic form is arcuate (arches are used to bridge a space).

 

8.All the Lodi rulers were buried on the Bagh-i-Jud known today as Lodi Garden. The coins of Mahmud Ghazni, Iltutmish, Nasirudin Mahmud, Balban, Alauddin Khalji bear the name of Abbasid Caliph.

 

9. Mansabdars had dual ranks – zat (personal rank & expenses) & sawar (cavalry rank). Land revenue systems were batai (crop divided between state & the peasant), hast-o-bud (official inspection for estimation), kankut system (estimation of land & yield), nasaq system (based on previous estimates).

 

10. The sants of the Vithoba cult & their followers called Varkari emphasized annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur (Mahrashtra). The most important saint was Jnaneshvar. Saguna Bhakti (Tulsi Das, Chaitanya, Surdas, Mirabai, Nimbarka& Vallabha) believed in doctrine of incarination while Nirguna bhakti (Kabir) worshiped formless aspect of divinity.

 

11. Guru Angad developed the Gurmukhi script. Guru Arjun Dev completed Adi Granth. Guru Hargobind constructed the Akal Takht at the Golden Temple & asked his followers to built the fort of Lohgarh. Enraged Jehangir had the Guru imprisoned for 2 years.

 

12. Of the various Sufi orders in India the Chishti (founder was Moinuddin Chisti) & Suharawadi (Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya whose Khanqah at Multan became an important pilgrimage centre) orders (silsilas)

 

 

 

 

 

were the most prominent. Other prominent saints were Shaikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki & Nizamuddin

 

Auliya. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Naqshbandi order) was contemporary of Jehangir.

 

13. There was no Maratha in Akbar’s nobility & only one in that of Jehangirs. In Aurangzeb’s time the Marathas increased considerably & foreign nobility declined. Dara Shukoh brother of Auranzeb got 52 Upanishads converted into Persian, the collective work being known as the Sirr-i-Akbar. Murshid Quli Khan was a talented revenue officer during the time of Shah Jahan who helped prince Aurangzegb streamline the revenues in Deccan.

 

14. Uprisings during Aurangzeb period were Jats (Gokula, Rajaram, Churaman & Surajmal-the adopted son of Badan Singh), Satnami, Sikhs (Guru Harkishan summoned to Delhi – Bangla Sahib is the site where he resided; Guru Teg Bahadur was beheaded at present Sis Ganj Gurudwara site; Guru Gobind Singh born in Patna), Bundelas of Ochha (under Chhatrasal)

 

15. On Baisakhi day in 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa panth. In the succession that followed after Aurangzeb, Govind Singh supported Bahadur Shah in the hope of getting justice against Wazir Khan (who killed Guru’s son) but all in vain. Gobind Singh appointed Banda Bahadur (later kille Wazir khan) to wage war against the mughals but he failed & was humiliated before being executed.

 

16. Shivaji assumed titles of Chhatrapati, Gobrahmance Pratipalak (protector of cows & Brahmins). His consecration marked the commencement of a new era, the Rajyabhisheka saka.

 

17. Bengal was the main silk centre. Land owner ship was Khudkhasta (Owner & land in the same village), Pahikashta (different village) & Muqarari raiya (He leased his spare land to tenants called muzarin). During mughal period there is no evidence of joint ownership of land. Slave trade focus shifted from Multan to Kabul. Freshly minted coins had a greater value than those minted in previous regimes.

 

18. Thomas Roe went to Jehangirs court to get concessions for operation. Dutch obtained a farman from the Sultan of Golconda to operate at Masulipatnam.

 

19. The Mughal school of painting began with Himayun & reached its pinnacle during Jehangir. Himayun also started the Mina Bazar for royal ladies.

 

 

Miscellaneous Facts from Mocks:

 

1. Qutbuddin Aibak was not recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad. Kashmir was never a part of sultanate of Delhi. ‘Janam Sakhis’ are the biographical writings abouth the Sikh gurus. The utterances of Namdev, Kabir, Ravidas, Shaikh Fariduddin Masud (Sufi Saint), Dhanna have been included in Adi Granth. Printing press was introduced in India by the Portuguese.

 

 

 

 

 

2. The most important system of land revenue was the Zabti system. The term ‘Urs’ referred to the death anniversary of a Sufi saint. The Sisodiyas of Mewar did not submit to Akbar during his reign. Shahjahan did not write his autobiography. Bairagis in India were a Vaishnavite sect.

 

3. Portuguese-Dutch-English-French was the correct sequence of foreigners coming to India. In medieval period Polaj was the most fertile land & banjar the least fertile.

 

4. Bijapur (Adil Shahi Dynasty), Ahmadnagar (Nizamshahi dynasty), Golkonda (Qutbshahi dynasty), Bidar (Barid Shahi dynasty).

 

5. Delhi Sultanate reached its maximum limit during Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Invasion of Chengiz Khan (Iltutmish reign), Invations of Tarmahirin (Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign), Invasion of Nadir Shah (Muhammad Shah) & Invasion of Timur (Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq).

 

6. Mir Syed Ali, Daswant & Khwaja Abdus Samad were famous painters at the court of Himayun & Akbar. Mansur & Bishan Das were leading court painters under Jehangir. The translation of Mahabharata in Persian (Razmnama) was carried out during the reign of Akbar by Faizi. Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur s built over the tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah.

 

7. The dominant form of decoration employed in the buildings of the sultanate period is called arabesque. Various regional languages of medieval India arose out of Apabhramsa. The pushtimarg was the philosophy of Guru Vallabhacharya (Surdas was his disciple).

 

8. Moinuddin Chisti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Farduddin Masud (Pak Patan, Pakistan) & Khwaja Syed Mudammad Gesu Daraz (Gulbarga) are the famous sufi shrines.

 

9. Krittivasa translated Ramayana into Bengali. Kabir, Ravidas, Dhanna & other low cast bhakti saints were belived to be disciples of Ramananda. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda founded the city of Hyderabad. Arabs were not a part of Mughal nobility. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan was a mughal noble & poet under Akbar.

 

10. The sufi silisilas were Suhrawadi, Firdausi, Shattari, Chisti, Qadiri & Naqshbandi. Amer was Jaipur, Marwar (Jodhpur), Mewar (present-day districts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand and Udaipur).