Moderate phase:early nationalists,Freedom of Press and Bal Gangadhar Tilak

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Contribution of early nationalists

  • Early nationalists believed that a direct struggle for the political emancipation of the country was not yet on the agenda of history. On agenda was:
    • Creation of public interest in political questions and the organization of public opinion
    • Popular demands had to be formulated on a country-wide basis
    • National unity had to be created. Indian nationhood had to be carefully promoted.
  • Early national leaders did not organize mass movement against the British. But they did carry out an ideological struggle against them. (Important from a Gramscian perspective)
  • Economic critique of imperialism
    • Economic critique of imperialism was the most important contribution of the early nationalists
    • They recognized that the essence of British economic imperialism lay in the subordination of the Indian economy to the British economy
    • They complained of India’s growing poverty and economic backwardness and the failure of modern industry and agriculture to grow
    • They wanted the government to promote modern industries through tariff protection and direct government aid
    • Popularized the idea of swadeshi and the boycott of British goods
    • They propounded the ‘drain of wealth’ theory and demanded that this drain be stopped
    • Demanded reduction of taxes and land revenue
    • Condemned the high military expenditure
  • Constitutional reforms
    • They were extremely cautious. From 1885 to 1892 they demanded the expansion and reform of the Legislative Councils
    • Due to their demands, the British passed the Indian Councils Act of 1892
    • They failed to broaden the base of their democratic demands. Did not demand the right to vote for the masses or for women
  • Administrative and other reforms
    • They demanded Indianisation of the higher grades of the administrative services.
    • They had economic political reasons for this. Economically, appointment of British only to ICS made Indian administration costly because they were paid very high. Politically, appointment of Indians would make the administration more responsive to Indian needs
    • Demanded separation of the judicial from executive powers so that the people might get some protection from the arbitrary acts of the police and the bureaucracy.
    • Urged the government to undertake and develop welfare activities and education
  • Defense of Civil Rights

Methods of work of early nationalists

  • Dominated by moderates till 1905
  • Method of moderates: Constitutional agitation within the four walls of the law, and slow, orderly political progress. Their work had two pronged direction:
    • To build a strong public opinion in India to arouse the political consciousness and national spirit of the people, and to educate and unite them on political questions
    • They wanted to persuade the British government and British public opinion to introduce reforms along directions laid down by the nationalists.
  • In 1889, a British Committee of the INC was founded. In 1890 this committee started a journal called India.

What about the role of the masses?

  • The basic weakness of the early national movement lay in its narrow social base.
  • The leaders lacked political faith in the masses.
  • Hence, masses were assigned a passive role in the early phase of the national movement.

Evaluation

  • The basic objectives of the early nationalist leaders were to lay the foundations of a secular and democratic national movement, to politicize and politically educate the people, to form the headquarters of the movement, that is, to form an all-India leadership group, and to develop and propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology.
  • Very few of the reforms for which the nationalists agitated were introduced by the government
  • It succeeded in creating a wide national awakening and arousing the feeling of nationhood. It made the people conscious of the bonds of common political, economic and social interests and the existence of a common enemy in imperialism
  • They exposed the true character of the British rule through their economic critique.
  • All this was to become a base for the national movement in the later period.

 

WHY HUME?

  • The leaders assumed that the rulers would be less suspicious and less likely to attack a potentially subversive organization if its chief organizer was a retired British civil servant.
  • Gokhale himself stated explicitly in 1913 that if any Indian had started such a movement the officials wouldn’t have let it happen.

 

  • First, the Indian intellectuals co-operated with the British in the hope that British would help modernize India.
  • However, the reality of social development in India failed to conform to their hopes.
  • Three people who carried out the economic analysis of British India:
    • Dadabhai Naoroji: the grand old man of India. Born in 1825, he became a successful businessman but devoted his entire life and wealth to the creation of national movement in India
    • Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade: He taught an entire generation of Indians the value of modern industrial development.
    • Romesh Chandra Dutt: a retired ICS officer, published The Economic History of India at the beginning of the 20th century in which he examined in minute detail the entire economic record of colonial rule since 1757.
  • They concluded that colonialism was the main obstacle to India’s economic development.
  • Three aspects of domination of British: trade, industry, finance
  • The problem of poverty was seen as a problem of national development. This approach made poverty a broad national issue and helped to unite, instead of divide, different regions and sections of Indian society.
  • The early nationalists accepted that the complete economic transformation of the country on the basis of modern technology and capitalist enterprise was the primary goal of their economic policies.
  • Because their whole-ted devotion to the cause of industrialization, the early nationalists looked upon all other issues such as foreign trade, railways, tariffs, finance and labour legislations in relation to this paramount aspect. (and hence the obsession of Nehru with industrialization)
  • However great the need of India for industrialization, it had to be based on Indian capital and not foreign capital.
  • The early nationalists saw foreign capital as an unmitigated evil which did not develop a country but exploited and impoverished it.
  • Expenditure on railways could be seen as Indian subsidy to British industries.
  • A major obstacle in the process of industrial development was the policy of free trade
  • High expenditure on the army
  • Drain theory was the focal point of nationalist critique of colonialism.
    • A large part of India’a capital and wealth was being transferred or drained to Britain in the form of salaries and pensions of British civil and military officials working in India, interest on loans taken by the Indian government, profits of British capitalists in India, and the Home Charges or expenses of the Indian Government in Britain.
    • This drain amounted to one-half of government revenues, more than the entire land revenue collection, and over one-third of India’s total savings.
    • The Drain theory was put forward by Dadabhai Naoroji. He declared that the drain was the basic cause of India’s poverty.
    • Through the drain theory, the exploitative character of the British rule was made visible.
    • The drain theory possessed the merit of being easily grasped and understood by a nation of peasants. No idea could arouse people more than the thought that they were being taxed so that others in far off lands might live in comfort.
    • This agitation on economic issues contributed to the undermining of the ideological hegemony of the alien rulers over Indian minds.
    • The nationalist economic agitation undermined the moral foundations inculcated by the British that foreign rule is beneficial for India.

 Freedom of Press

  • On 29th January 1780, the Hickey’s Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertizer was published. It was the first English newspaper to be printed in the Indian sub-continent.
  • The press was the chief instrument of forming a nationalist ideology

 

  • The resolutions and proceedings of the Congress were propagated through press. Trivia: nearly one third of the founding fathers of congress in 1885 were journalists.

 

  • Main news papers and editors

 

  • The Hindu and Swadesamitran: G Subramaniya Iyer
  • Kesari and Mahratta: BG Tilak
  • Bengalee: S N Banerjea
  • Amrita Bazar Patrika: Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
  • Sudharak: GK Gokhale
  • Indian Mirror: N N Sen
  • Voice of India: Dadabhai Naoroji
  • Hindustani and Advocate: GP Varma
  • Tribune and Akhbar-i-Am in Punjab
  • Indu Prakash, Dnyan Prakahs, Kal and Gujarati in Bombay
  • Som Prakash, Banganivasi and Sadharani in Bengal

 

  • Newspaper was not confined to the literates. It would reach the villages and would be read by a reader to tens of others.
  • Reading and discussing newspaper became a form of political participation.
  • Nearly all the major political controversies of the day were conducted through the Press.
  • ‘Oppose, oppose, oppose’ was the motto of the Indian press.
  • The section 124A of the IPC was such as to punish a person who evoked feelings of disaffection to the government.
  • The Indian journalists remained outside 124A by adopting methods such as quoting the socialist and anti-imperialist newspapers of England or letters from radical British citizens
  • The increasing influence of the newspapers led the government to pass the Vernacular Press Act of 1978, directed only against Indian language newspapers.
    • It was passed very secretively
    • The act provided for the confiscation of the printing press, paper and other materials of a newspaper if the government believed that it was publishing seditious materials and had flouted an official warning.
    • Due to the agitations, it was repealed in 1881 by Lord Ripon.
  • SN Banerjee was the first Indian to go to jail in performance of his duty as a journalist.

 

B G Tilak

 

  • The man who is most frequently associated with the struggle for the freedom of Press during the nationalist movement is Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
  • In 1881, along with G G Agarkar, he founded the newspapers Kesari and Mahratta.
  • In 1893, he started the practice of using the traditional religious Ganapati festival to propagate nationalist ideas through patriotic songs and speeches.
  • In 1896, he started the Shivaji festival to stimulate nationalism among young Maharashtrians.
  • He brought peasants and farmers into the national movement.
  • He organized a no-tax campaign in Maharashtra in 1896-97
  • Plague in Poona in 1897.
  • Popular resentment against the official plague measures resulted in the assassination of Rand, the Chairman of the Plague Committee in Poona, and Lt. Ayerst by the Chaphekar brothers on 27 June 1898.
  • Since 1894, anger had been rising against the government due to the tariff, currency and famine policy.
  • Tilak was arrested and sentenced to 18 month rigorous imprisonment in 1897. This led to country wide protests and Tilak was given the title of Lokmanya.
  • Tilak was again arrested and tried on 24 June 1908 on the charge of sedition under article 124A. He was sentenced to 6 years of transportation. This led to nationwide protests and closing down of markets for a week. Later, in 1922 Gandhi was tried on the same act and he said that he is proud to be associated with Tilak’s name.

 

 

 

  • The Indian Councils Act of 1861 enlarged the Governor-General’s Executive Council for the purpose of making laws.
  • The GG could add 6-12 members to the Executive Council. This came to be known as the Imperial Legislative Council. It didn’t have any powers.
  • ‘Despotism controlled from home’ was the fundamental feature of British rule in India.
  • The Indians nominated to the council were not representative of the nationalist movement.
  • Despite the early nationalists believing that India should eventually become self-governing, they moved very cautiously in putting forward political demands regarding the structure of the state, for they were afraid of the Government declaring their activities seditious and disloyal and suppressing them.
  • Till 1892, they only demanded reforms in the council.

 

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Features, Amendments and Significant provisions of Indian Constitution

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Amendments

Amendments to the Constitution are made by the Parliament, the procedure for which is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament by a two-thirds majority and voting. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. As of June 2013 there have been 118 amendment bills presented in the Parliament, out of which 98 have been passed to become Amendment Acts.

Amendments of constitution
Amendment Enforced on Objectives
1. 1951 To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws and to place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule 9 introduced to protect laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights. These laws encroach upon property rights, freedom of speech and equality before law.
2. 1953 A technical amendment to fix the size of each parliamentary constituency between 650,000 and 850,000 voters.
3. 1955 LS limit of 500 members, one member of a constituency represents between 500000 and 750000 people.
4. 1955 Restrictions on property rights and inclusion of related bills in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
5. 1955 Provides for a consultation mechanism with concerned states in matters relating to the amendments to the territorial matters and in the re-naming of the state.
6. 1956 Amend the Union and State Lists with respect to raising of taxes.
7. 1956 Reorganization of states on linguistic lines, abolition of Class A, B, C, D states and introduction of Union Territories.
8. 1960 Clarify state’s power of compulsory acquisition and requisitioning of private property and include Zamindari abolition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
9. 1960 Minor adjustments to territory of Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.
10. 1961 Incorporation of Dadra, Nagar and Haveli as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
11. 1961 Election of Vice President by Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, instead of election by a Joint Sitting of Parliament.
Indemnify the President and Vice President Election procedure from challenge on grounds of existence of any vacancies in the electoral college.
12. 1961 Incorporation of Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
13. 1963 Formation of State of Nagaland, with special protection under Article 371A.
14. 1962 Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India and creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa.
15. 1963 Raise retirement age of judges from 60 to 62 and other minor amendments for rationalizing interpretation of rules regarding judges etc.,
16. 1963 Make it obligatory for seekers of public office to swear their allegiance to the Indian Republic and prescribe the various obligatory templates.
17. 1964 To secure the constitutional validity of acquisition of Estates and place land acquisition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution
18. 1966 Technical Amendment to include Union Territories in Article 3 and hence permit reorganisation of Union Territories.
19. 1966 Abolish Election Tribunals and enable trial of election petitions by regular High Courts.
20. 1966 Indemnify & validate judgments, decrees, orders and sentences passed by judges and to validate the appointment, posting, promotion and transfer of judges barring a few who were not eligible for appointment under article 233. Amendment needed to overcome the effect of judgement invalidating appointments of certain judges in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
21. 1967 Include Sindhi as an Official Language.
22. 1969  

Provision to form Autonomous states within the State of Assam.
23. 1970 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1980.
24. 1971 Enable parliament to dilute fundamental rights through amendments to the constitution.
25. 1972 Restrict property rights and compensation in case the state takes over private property.
26. 1971 Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.
27. 1972 Reorganization of Mizoram into a Union Territory with a legislature and council of ministers.
28. 1972 Rationalize Civil Service rules to make it uniform across those appointed prior to Independence and post independence.
29. 1972 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
30. 1973 Change the basis for appeals in Supreme Court of India in case of Civil Suits from value criteria to one involving substantial question of law.
31. 1973 Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats. Increased seats going to the new states formed in North East India and minor adjustment consequent to 1971 Delimitation exercise.
32. 1974 Protection of regional rights in Telengana and Andhra regions of State of Andhra Pradesh.
33. 1974 Prescribes procedure for resignation by members of parliament and state legislatures and the procedure for verification and acceptance of resignation by house speaker.
34. 1974 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
35. 1975 Terms and Conditions for the Incorporation of Sikkim into the Union of India.
36. 1975 Formation of Sikkim as a State within the Indian Union.
37. 1975 Formation of Arunachal Pradesh legislative assembly.
38. 1975 Enhances the powers of President and Governors to pass ordinances
39. 1975 Amendment designed to negate the judgement of Allahabad High Court invalidating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s election to parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of President, vice-president and Prime Minister.
40. 1976 Enable Parliament to make laws with respect to Exclusive Economic Zone and vest the mineral wealth with Union of India

Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
41. 1976 Raise Retirement Age Limit of Chairmen and Members of Union and State Public Commissions from 60 to 62.
42. 1977 Amendment passed during internal emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a “Socialist Secular” Republic.
43. 1978 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Repeals some of the more ‘Anti-Freedom’ amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42.
44. 1979 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.
45. 1980 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1990.
46. 1983 Amendment to negate judicial pronouncements on scope and applicability on Sales Tax.
47. 1984 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
48. 1985 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to two years in the state of Punjab.
49. 1984 Recognize Tripura as a Tribal State and enable the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council.
50. 1984 Technical Amendment to curtailment of Fundamental Rights as per Part III as prescribed in Article 33 to cover Security Personnel protecting property and communication infrastructure.
51. 1986 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
52. 1985 Anti Defection Law – Provide disqualification of members from parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other.
53. 1987 Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
54. 1986 Increase the salary of Chief Justice of India & other Judges and to provide for determining future increases without the need for constitutional amendment.
55. 1987 Special powers to Governor consequent to formation of state of Arunachal Pradesh.
56. 1987 Transition provision to enable formation of state of Goa.
57. 1987 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
58. 1987 Provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of constitution as on date and provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of future amendments.
59. 1988 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years in the state of Punjab, Articles 352 and Article 359A amended to permit imposing emergency in state of Punjab or in specific districts of the state of Punjab.
60. 1988 Profession Tax increased from a maximum of Rs. 250/- to a maximum of Rs. 2500/-.
61. 1989 Reduce age for voting rights from 21 to 18.
62. 1989 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2000.
63. 1990 Emergency powers applicable to State of Punjab, accorded in Article 359A as per amendment 59 repealed.
64. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.
65. 1990 National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its stututory powers specifed in The Constitution.
66. 1990 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
67. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to four years in the state of Punjab.
68. 1991 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to five years in the state of Punjab.
69. 1992 To provide for a legislative assembly and council of ministers for Federal National Capital of Delhi. Delhi continues to be a Union Territory.
70. 1991 Include National Capital of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry in electoral college for Presidential Election.
71. 1992 Include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali as Official Languages.
72. 1992 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Tripura State Legislative Assembly.
73. 1993 Statutory provisions for Panchyat Raj as third level of administration in villages.
74. 1993 Statutory provisions for Local Administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities. (Municipalities)
75. 1994 Provisions for setting up Rent Control Tribunals.
76. 1994 Enable continuance of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by including the relevant Tamil Nadu Act under 9th Schedule of the constitution.
77. 1995 A technical amendment to protect reservation to SC/ST Employees in promotions.
78. 1995 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
79. 2000 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2010.
80. 2000 Implement Tenth Finance Commission recommendation to simplify the tax structures by pooling and sharing all taxes between states and The Centre.
81. 2000 Protect SC / ST reservation in filling backlog of vacancies.
82. 2000 Permit relaxation of qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for SC / ST candidates.
83. 2000 Exempt Arunachal Pradesh from reservation for Scheduled Castes in Panchayati Raj institutions.
84. 2002 Extend the usage of 1991 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
85. 2002 A technical amendment to protect seniority in case of promotions of SC/ST Employees.
86. 2002 Provides Right to Education until the age of fourteen and Early childhood care until the age of six.
87. 2003 Extend the usage of 2001 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
88. 2004 To extend statutory cover for levy and utilization of Service Tax.
89. 2003 The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was bifurcated into The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
90. 2003 Reservation in Assam Assembly relating to Bodoland Territory Area.
91. 2004 Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15 % of legislative members & to strengthen Anti Defection laws.
92. 2004 Enable Levy of Service Tax. Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Maithili as National Languages.
93. 2006 Reservation for OBCs in government as well as private educational institutions
94. 2006 To provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States.
95. 2010 Extended the reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for SCs and STs from sixty to seventy years.
96. 2011 Changed “Oriya” in the Eighth Schedule to “Odia.
97. 2012, Jan 12 Right to form unions or co-operative societies. (19(1)C)

Promotion of Co-operative Societies. (43B)

The Co-operative Societies. (Part 9B)
98. 2013, Jan 2 To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region.

(To insert Article 371J in the Constitution)

 

Structure

 

Parts of Constitution
Part Articles Deals with
1 1-4 The Union and its territory
2 5-11 Citizenship
3 12-35 Fundamental Rights
4 36-51 Directive Principles of State Policy
4A 51A Fundamental Duties
5 52-151 The Union
6 152-237 The States
7 238 Repealed
8 239-242 The Union Territories
9 243A-O The Panchayats
9A 243P-ZG The Municipalities
10 244-A The Scheduled and Tribal areas
11 245-263 The relation between Union and States
12 264-300A Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits
13 301-307 Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the territory of India
14 308-323 Services under The Union and The States
14A 323A-B Tribunals
15 324-329A Elections
16 330-342 Special provisions relating to SCs, STs, OBCs and Anglo-Indians
17 342-351 Official Language
18 352-360 Emergency Provisions
19 361-367 Miscellaneous
20 368 Amendment of the Constitution
21 369-392 Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions
22 393-395 Short title, Commencement, Authoritative text in hindi and repeals

 

Schedules of Constitution
Schedule Articles Deals with
1 1,4 The States and The Union Territories. (28 states, 7 union territories)
2 59,65,75,97,125,148,158,164,186,221 Emoluments, allowances and Privileges.

 
3 75,84,99,124,146,173,188,219 Oaths of ministers and judges.

Office of union ministers, secrecy of union ministers, candidate for MP elections, elected MP, Judges of SC or CAG, candidate for state legislatures, elected state ministers, Judges of HC.
4 4,80 Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha. (currently 233 elected + 12 nominated)
5 244 Administration and control of Scheduled areas and scheduled tribes.
6 244,275 Administration of Tribal areas of North-Eastern states: Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura.
7 246 Distribution of Power : Union list(99), State list(61) and Concurrent list(52).

Union list:
8 344,351 Languages.

Originally 14, currently 22.

Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Marathi,

Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu.

21st amendment: Sindhi. (1967)

71st amendment: Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali. (1992)

92nd amendment: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali. (2004)
9 31B Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.

Introduced by 1st amendment (1951) to protect from judicial review.

Laws made after April 24, 1973 are open for judicial review now.

284 laws includes state laws on land reforms.
10 102,191 Anti-Defection Law (52nd amendment)
11 243G Powers and Responsibilities of Panchayats (73rd amendment)
12 243W Powers and Responsibilities of Municipalities (74th amendment)

 

Features

  • Lengthiest written Constitution: Originally our constitution contained 395 articles divided in 22 parts and 8 schedules. Constitution has been amended 98 times. Currently there are 25 Parts, 12 Schedules, and 448 Articles. These figures show our constitution as the most comprehensive constitution in the world. (British have no written constitution and Constitution of USA had originally only 7 articles)
  • Starts with a Preamble: It gives an insight into the Philosophy of the Constitution.
  • Drawn from different sources: fundamental rights from USA, bicameralism from UK, Fundamental duties from USSR etc,
  • Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility: making Law is quite flexible and easy in comparison to amending a law.
  • Sovereignty of the Country: managing internal and external affairs freely without any external forces.
  • Democratic state: governing power is derived from the people by means of elected representatives of the people.
  • Republic: India does not have a hereditary post of Head of the State. The Head of the state in India is President and he / she is elected.
  • Socialist State: Indian socialism is democratic socialism. The goals of the socialism are to be realized through democratic means.
  • Secular state: India is secular country. Here No religion is a state religion. The constitution provides equal treatment to all religions.
  • Parliamentary Form of Government: Westminster model of government. Presence of nominal and real executives, majority party rule, collective responsibility of executive to legislature, dissolution of lower house, prime minister has crucial and important role.
  • A blend of Federal and Unitary System: there are separate governments in the Union and States and there is division of power. Unitary features: Strong centre. Single Citizenship, single constitution for both the centre and states, emergency provisions, all India services. India is also quasi-federal as constitution describes India as union of states. States cannot unjoin as well as there is no agreement by states. We have union as well as state lists.
  • Integrated and independent Judiciary: The states have high courts but the verdicts of these courts are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court. The Constitution has made the High Courts subordinate to the Supreme Court.
  • Universal Adult Franchise: Every citizen who is above 18 years has a Voting Right without any discrimination.
  • Three tier government structure: union, state and panchayats.
  • Synthesis of parliamentary sovereignty and judicial supremacy: judicial review of Supreme Court by procedure established by law. Also, parliament can amend major portion of constitution.
  • Fundamental rights: to promote political democracy. Enforceable by courts for violation. They are Justiciable in nature.
  • Fundamental duties: to respect constitution; to promote national unity, integrity, sovereignty; to preserve rich cultural heritage and promote common brotherhood. They are not justiciable in nature.
  • Directive principles of state policy: socialistic, liberal and gandhian meant for promoting ideal social and economic democracy. To establish welfare state. It is the duty of state to apply these in governance. They are not justiciable.
  • Independent bodies: constitution not only provides legislative, executive and judicial organs of government (state and centre) but also has independent election commission, CAG, UPSC, SPSC with security of tenure, service conditions.

 

Provisions

Emergency Provisions in the Constitution of India

The Emergency Provisions are mentioned from Article 352 to Article 360.

?      Article 352: Proclamation of Emergency – due to external intrusion or war the President of India can declare a state of emergency through a Proclamation. This Article suggests that such a Proclamation can be revoked or a varied Proclamation can also be issued. However, the decision of the Cabinet ministers to issue such a proclamation must be sent to the President in written form prior to his issuance of the same. According to the Article, all such Proclamations should be presented to both the Houses of the Parliament. The Proclamations, if not accepted by a resolution, will be counted as ineffective after one month. If the Proclamation is not accepted after the passing of a second resolution, then it will become ineffective after the expiry of 6 months of the second resolution. It is also mentioned in the Article that not less than two-thirds of the members of any of the Parliamentary Houses should be required to pass a resolution. There are certain rules specified in this Article regarding the President revoking or issuing a varied Proclamation during Emergency.

?      Article 353: Effect of Proclamation of Emergency – this Article states that the Proclamation of Emergency includes extending the executive power of the union to the states in the form of directions. The Parliament, as per this Article, can confer the power to make laws, upon the officers or authorities of the Union.

?      Article 354: Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation – provisions made under Articles 268 to 279 can be modified or exceptions can be made by the President of India by an Order while the Proclamation period of emergency is going on. Information about all such Orders must be conveyed to both the Houses of Parliament.

?      Article 355: Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance – this Article states the fact that the Union or Center is solely responsible for defending the various states from all types of violence and aggressions erupting from outside and disturbances occurring within the nation’s territory.

?      Article 356: Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States – the President of India can take charge of a state if the reports submitted to him by the Governor suggest that the government of the state has become incapable of exercising the Constitutional powers. The President is also subjected to exercise the powers of the government of such state by Proclamation. The Proclamation issued under such circumstances become ineffective after 6 months from the date of issuance, if not revoked during this time period. All such Proclamations have to be presented to both the Houses of Indian Parliament and will expire after two months. The Legislative powers of such state shall also be exercised by the Parliament. In the Houses of Parliament there are certain rules and regulations regarding the expiry of the Proclamation and the time period normally depends upon the fact whether it has been revoked earlier or not.

?      Article 357: Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356 – the powers of the Legislature shall be exercised by the Parliament during emergency. The Parliament has the right to delegate Legislative powers to the President of India or any such authority. The President of India, after the Proclamation of Article 356, can make laws and shall have access to the consolidated fund during the time period when the House of the People is not in operation.

?      Article 358: Suspension of provisions of article 19 during emergencies – any provision under Article 19 will not be effective during emergency and the states can make law and undertake executive action. However, only those laws and executive actions containing recital related to emergency during the Proclamation of Emergency are effective as per the Article.

?      Article 359: Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies – the President of India can suspend all ongoing proceedings in any court of the nation during emergencies by an Order. The President can also call upon all pending court proceedings in case of emergencies. All such orders declaring the suspension of court proceedings have to be submitted to both the Houses of Parliament.

?      Article 360: Provisions as to financial emergency – a declaration shall be made by the President of India through a Proclamation regarding the financial crisis of the nation if such situation arises. Such a Proclamation can be revoked and has to be presented in both the Houses of the Parliament. The Proclamation thus issued will become null and void after two months if the same is not approved through a resolution passed by the Houses of Parliament. In case the Houses are not in session the Article suggests certain specific guidelines regarding the Proclamation. This Article also includes provisions relating to the salary and allowance reduction of those who are employed with Union and state departments. A provision relating to money bills and other financial bills passed by the state Legislature is mentioned in the Article. This provision states that all such bills have to be considered by the President during financial instability.

 

Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes

The Constitution of India has listed the special provisions relating to certain classes in Part XVI. From Article 330 to Article 342.

?      Article 330: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People – this Article states that a certain number of seats should be reserved in the House of the People for both the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. However, clause b of the Article includes Schedule Tribes excluding those who live in the autonomous districts of Assam. Clause c of the Article includes the Schedule Tribes belonging to the autonomous Assam districts. It is also mentioned in this Article that the total number of such seats assigned to the Schedule Tribes of autonomous Assam districts should match the total number of seats allotted in the House of the People. The seats alloted to the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes of a particular state or Union Territory should be proportional to the total number of seats reserved for such state or Union Territory in the house of the People.

?      Article 331: Representation of the Anglo-Indian Community in the House of the People – it is specified in this Article of the Indian Constitution that the President of India has the sole right to elect a maximum of 2 members belonging to the Anglo-Indian section to represent the entire community.

?      Article 332: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States – This Article of the Constitution states that a definite number of seats in every state’s Legislative Assembly should be alloted to the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. The Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes of the autonomous districts of Assam are also given seats in the Legislative Assembly. It is also specified that a person not belonging to the Schedule Tribes category of Assam state cannot contest the Legislation Assembly election from any of the constituencies of the districts of the state. Also, all areas outside the periphery of the districts of Assam should not hold any constituency of the Legislative Assembly of the Assam state. The total seats alloted to the state Legislative Assembly of Assam should be in proportion of the total population and the share of the SC/ST in such population.

 

As per Article332, the number of seats alloted to the SC/STs of a state should follow a proportion to the total number of seats assigned in the Assembly as the total population of the SC/STs in that state with respect to the total state population.

In case of such states as Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh, as per the Constitution Act 1987, if all the seats of the Legislative Assembly after the first census of 2000, belong to the Schedule Tribes, then only one seat shall be alloted to other communities. Also, the total number of seats alloted to the Schedule Tribes shall not be less than the existing number of seats in the Assembly of the state.

The Article suggests that the the total number of seats of Schedule Tribes in the Legislative Assembly of Tripura state should be proportional to the total number of existing seats in the Assembly. As per the Constitution Act 1992, the number of the Schedule Tribe members in the Legislative Assembly of Tripura shall not be less than the total number of seats already available in the Assembly.

 

?      Article 333: Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States – according to this Article of the Constitution of India if the Governor of any state thinks it necessary to elect one representative of the Anglo-Indian community for the Legislative Assembly of that state then he can do the same. Also, if the governor feels that Anglo-Indian community does not have sufficient representation in the state Legislative Assembly then also he can elect one member of that community for the Assembly.

?      Article 334: Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after 289A – This Article holds the fact that after 60 years of the enactment of the Indian Constitution, certain provisions shall become ineffective. However, it is also specified that the Article will not be applied until and unless the House of the People or the Legislative Assembly gets dissolved because of some significant reason. The Provisions with which this Article deals with include reserving seats for Anglo-Indian community, Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes in the House of the People or in the Legislative Assembly.

?      Article 335: Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts – The Article states that the various claims of the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes shall be regarded accordingly. Relaxation of age, lower cut off marks and easier parameters of evaluation for the purpose of selecting SC/ST candidates to different posts and services will remain intact irrespective of the provisions mentioned in this Article.

?      Article 336: Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services – as per this Article, for such posts of Union as postal and telegraph, customs and railway, the members of the Anglo-Indian community will be selected, for the first two years of the initiation of the Constitution, following the rules prevailing before 15th August, 1947. It is also specified that in every two years the total number of seats allotted to the Anglo-Indian community in different services and posts will go down by 10%. The Article states that these provisions will become ineffective after 10 years of the enactment of the Indian Constitution. However, clause 2 of this Article clearly mentions that if a candidate of the concerned community is eligible for any post other than the ones mentioned above then he will be selected with immediate effect.

?      Article 337: Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian community – the provisions of this Article deal with the fact that grants to the Anglo-Indian community shall be offered in the first three years of the enactment of the Constitution following the same rules made on 31st March 1948. It is also stated that the amount of such grants will reduce by 10% in every three succeeding years. It is mentioned that after 10 years of the initiation of the Constitution of India all such grants will cease to exist. Moreover, the Article states that only when at least 40% of the admissions in educational units belong to communities other than Anglo-Indians, such grants will be offered to the said community.

?      Article 338: National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes – This Article covers the issues to be dealt with by the said Commission exclusively made for the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. As per the Constitution of India, the Article holds that the Commission should include a Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and other members all of whom are elected by the President of India. The Commission, according to the Article, has the power to investigate all matters that are related to the safeguard of the Sc/STs. The commission can also exercise its power by summoning any person from any part of the nation to interrogate him regarding a particular issue of the SC/STs. The Commission shall also take necessary measures to improve the socio-economic status of the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. A report specifying whether the safeguards of the ST/SCs are maintained properly shall be submitted to the President of India every year by the Commission.

?      Article 339: Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes – the Article suggests that a Commission specifying the administration of Scheduled Areas and Welfare of Scheduled Tribes shall be formed by Order of the President after 10 years of the Indian Constitution’s enactment. The various procedures and powers of the commission are to be included in the said Order. Planning and execution of various schemes pertaining to the development of the Schedule Tribes included in the executive power of the Union is also mentioned in the Article.

?      Article 340: Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes – this Article specifies that the President of India can form a Commission by Order that will look into the overall condition of the people belonging to the backward classes. This Commission is also supposed to recommend any state or union the necessary steps through which the underprivileged classes can improve their social and economic status. On the basis of the investigation done, the Commission shall submit a report to the President of India. The President, in turn, shall present such report with a memorandum to both of the Houses of the Indian Parliament and will prescribe the necessary steps to be taken to develop the condition of the backward classes.

?      Article 341: Scheduled Castes – this Article states that the President of India after taking the advice of the Governor of any state or Union Territory, has the right to demarcate tribes, races or castes or a part of any group as Scheduled Castes, in accordance with the law of the Constitution. The president can do the same by issuing a public notification. However, the Parliament of India can, by law, accept or reject the list containing the Scheduled Caste groups.

?      Article 342: Scheduled Tribe – a group belonging to a tribe or an entire tribal community of a state or an Union Territory can be declared as Scheduled Tribe by the President of India through issuing a public notice. The President consults with the Governor of the concerned state or Union Territory before specifying a tribe as Scheduled Tribe. The Parliament of India can decide upon canceling or keeping the particular ST in the list of Scheduled Tribes. However, the public notification issued for declaration of the Scheduled Tribe can be saved by the Parliament.

 

Other provisions

 

Article 369 {Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List}

Article 370 {Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir}

Article 371 {Special provision with respect to the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat}

Article 371A {Special provision with respect to the State of Nagaland}

Article 371B {Special provision with respect to the State of Assam}

Article 371C {Special provision with respect to the State of Manipur}

Article 371D {Special provisions with respect to the State of Andhra Pradesh}

Article 371E {Establishment of Central University in Andhra Pradesh}

Article 371F {Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim}

Article 371G {Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram}

Article 371H {Special provision with respect to the State of Arunachal Pradesh}

Article 371I {Special provision with respect to the State of Goa}

Article 372 {Continuance in force of existing laws and their adaptation}

Article 372A {Power of the President to adapt laws}

Article 373 {Power of President to make order in respect of persons under preventive detention in certain cases}

Article 374 {Provisions as to Judges of the Federal Court and proceedings pending in the Federal Court or before His Majesty in Council}

Article 375 {Courts, authorities and officers to continue to function subject to the provisions of the Constitution}

Article 376 {Provisions as to Judges of High Courts}

Article 377 {Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India}

Article 378 {Provisions as to Public Commissions}

Article 378A {Special provisions as to duration of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly}

 

 

Peasant Uprisings

by
  • Many dispossessed peasants took to robbery and dacoity.
  • Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
  • By the end of 1860 indigo cultivation was virtually wiped out from the districts of Bengal
  • A major reason for the success of the Indigo revolt was the tremendous initiative, cooperation, organization and discipline of the ryots.
  • Another was the complete unity among Hindu and Muslim peasants
  • Another significant feature was the role of intelligentsia of Bengal which organized a powerful campaign in support of the rebellious peasantry.
  • The government’s response to the revolt was rather restrained and not as harsh as in the case of civil rebellions and tribal uprisings.
  • The government appointed the Indigo Commission to enquire into the problems of indigo cultivation. The report of the commission exposed the coercion and corruption in indigo cultivation
  • The government issued a notification in November 1960 that ryots could not be compelled to sow indigo and all disputes were to be settled by legal means.

Late Peasant Movements

  • Three important peasant movements of the early twentieth century:
    • Kisan Sabha and Eka movements in Avadh in UP
    • Mappila rebellion in Malabar
    • Bardoli Satyagrah in Gujarat
  • The UP Kisan Sabha was set up in February 1918 through the efforts of Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narain Dwivedi with the support of Madan Mohan Malviya.
  • By June 1919, it had established about 450 branches in 173 tehsils of the province.
  • In August 1921, Mappila (Muslim) tenants rebelled. Their grievances related to lack of any security of tenure, renewal fees, high rents and other oppressive labndlord exactions.
  • The no-tax movement was launched in Bardoli taluq of Surat district in Gujarat in 1928.

 

The Working Class Movements

  • There were some working class movements in second half of 19th However, they were impulsive and not very well organized.
  • The early nationalists had a lukewarm attitude towards the question of workers. This war because initially Congress wanted to focus on issues which were of common concern to all the people of India.
  • There was a difference in attitude of the nationalists towards workers in indigenous and European enterprises.
  • The most important feature of the labour movement during the Swadeshi days was the shift from agitation and struggles on purely economic questions to the involvement of the worker with the wider political issues of the day.
  • The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in 1920.
  • IN 1918 Gandhi founded the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association.
  • The AITUC in November 1927 took a decision to boycott the Simon Commission and many workers participated in the massive Simon boycott demonstrations.
  • Alarmed by worker’s movement, the government enacted repressive laws like the Public Safety Act and Trade Disputes Acts and arrested the entire radical leadership of the labour movement and launched the Meerut Conspiracy Case against them.
  • The labour movement suffered a major setback partially due to this government offensive and partially due to a shift in stance of the communist led wing of the movement.
  • From the end of 1928, the communists stopped aligning them with the national movement.
  • Communists got isolated within the AITUC and were thrown out in the split of 1931.
  • BY 1934, the communists re-entered the mainstream nationalist politics.
  • The working class of Bombay held an anti-war strike on 2 October, 1939.
  • With the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, the communists changed their policy and asked the people to support the allied forces instead of holding anti-war strikes.
  • The communists dissociated themselves from the Quit India movement launched in 1942.
  • The last years of colonial rule also saw a remarkably sharp increase in strikes on economic issues all over the country – the all India strike of the post and telegraph department employees being the most well known among them.

 

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Movements/Organizations

by
Aligarh Movement Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan
Deoband Represented  by  Mohammad  Qasim  Nanautavi  &  Rashid  Ahmad  Gangohi.
Movement Nanautavi founded the ‘Dar-ul-Ullema’ madrasa at Deoband. This movement was
  strictly  based  on  Islamic  tradition unlike liberal  Aligarh movement.   The  also
  promulgated a fatwa against Sayyid Ahmad’s associations. In 1919, Mufti Liyaqat
  Ullah  Sahib  founded  the,  ‘Jamaitul  Ulema-i-Hind’  to  further  work  in  this
  direction. His role was prominent in the Khilafat movement.
Muslim League Nawab Wakar-ul-Mulk presided over a gathering at the invitation of Nawab Salim
  Ullah of Dacca. Muslim league was the result. The constitution of the league was
  prepared in 1907 at Karachi. The first session of the league was held in 1908 at
  Amritsar. The same year Aga Khan became the president. The league supported
  partition of Bengal & was a loyalist organization. After 1913 Aga Khan left the
  league which led to the emergence of new leaders like Muhammad Ali, Shaukat
  Ali & M.A. Ansari.
Home Rule League Estd by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. She was the president &
  other   members   included   Arundale,   P.C.   Ramaswamy   Iyer,   V.P.   Wadia.
  Balgangadhar Tilak had estd another Home Rule League in April 1916 at Pune.
Champaran European  planters  forced  the  farmers  to  cultivate  Indigo  on  atleast  3/20
Satyagraha 1917 (Tinkathiya) parts of their land. Rajendra Prasad, Mazhur-ul-Haq, J.B. Kriplani,
  Mahadev Desai accompanied him. An enquiry was set up to alleviate miseries of
  which even Gandhi was a member.
Kheda Satyagraha Kheda peasants refused to pay revenue due to failure of crops. After Satyagraha

 

 

 

 

1918 the government issued instructions to collect revenue only from those who could
  afford to pay. Indulal Yagnik & Vallabh Bhai Patel supported Gandhi.
Ahmedabad Mill Mahatma Gandhi considered 35 % increase in salary as just. He undertook a fast
Problem 1918 unto death & the strike came to an end. Ambalal Sarabhai’s sister Anasuya Behn
  was main lieutenant of Gandhi here.
Rowlatt Act In March 1919, the Britishers passed the Rowlatt Act according to which any
  Indian could be arrested on the basis of suspicion. A nationwide satyagraha was
  organized which involved arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr Satyapal, Dr. Saiffuddin
  Kitchlew & Arya Samaj leader Swami Shradhananda (shoot if you can rally).
Jallianwala Bagh Demanded  to  know  the  whereabouts  of  Satyapal  and  Kitchlew  throught  the
Massacre reciting of  the poem ‘Fariyad’ on the day of Baisakhi (13th  April, 1919). Martial
  law was proclaimed later at Lahore, Gujarat & Layal with curfew at Amritsar. An
  enquiry was setup under Hunter. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his title.
Khilafat Movement Sultan of Turkey was the Caliph. The allied powers were arrayed against Turkey.
  Mulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saiffudin Kitchlew, Maulvi Abdulbari,
  Hakim Ajmal Khan & the Ali brothers were prominent leaders. British signed the
  Treaty of Tibers, partitioned Turkey & its Sultan was made a prisoner & sent to
  Constantinople.
Non Cooperation Approval at Congress session in 1920. Leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie
1920-22 Besant & Bipin Chandra Pal not in agreement & left the congress. Students took
  their names off school. Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Jamia Milia Islamia
  were set up. No Congress leader contested for https://exam.pscnotes.com/elections”>Elections. Mass demonstrations
  before  Duke  of  Connaught  &  Prince  of  wales.  Tilak  Swarajya  Fund  was
  established. Moplah rebellion was the ugly face. Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, UP
  incidence led to its recall. Congress leaders like Motilal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das
  formed as separate group within the congress known as Swarajya Party with a
  purpose not to let the movement lapse.
AITUC Formed  in  1920  with  Lotvala’s  help.  M.N  Roy,  Muzzafarabad  Ahmad,  S.  A
1920 Dange  &  Shaukat  Osmani  led  the  trade  unionist  movements.  The  Britishers
  leveled the kanpur/Meerut conspiracy against them.
Swaraj Party Suspension   of   Non   Cooperation   movement   disoriented   the   Leadership.
  Chittaranjan Das & Motilal Nehru were called ‘Pro-Changers’ & did not support
  the non cooperation movement. The other group was ‘no-changers’ & included C.
  Rajgopalachari, M.A. Ansari. In 1923 Das & Nehru formed the Swaraj Party at
  Allahabad with a view to take part in the 1923 Council elections. The swaraj party
  got  clear  majority  in  the  Central  legislature  &  Provincial  legislatures  except
  Bengal. After the passing away of Chittaranjan Das in 1925 the party weakened &
  further some of the leaders became corrupt. Therefore in the election of 1926 it
  suffered miserable defeat in all the provinces except Madras.
Hindustan Established in October 1924 in Kanpur by revolutionaries like Ramprasad Bismil,
Republic Jogesh Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad and Sachindranath Sanyal. The Kakori
Associaiton 1924 Train Action was a notable act of terrorism by this group but trial prooved to be a
  major  setback.However,  the  group  was  reorganized  under  the  leadership  of
  Chandrashekhar Azad and with members like Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan
  Vohra  and  Sukhdev  on  9  and  10  September  1928-  and  the  group  was  now
  christened Hindustan Socialist  Republican  Association (HSRA).  Bhagat  Singh,
  Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in March 1931.
Communist Party Was declared illegal in 1934. This ban continued till 1942 when there was an

 

 

 

of India 1925 agreement that the communist will support British in the war effort & sabotage the
  Quit India Movement. In a memorandum to the Cabinet Mission in 1946, they put
  forward a plan for the division of India into 17 sovereign states.
Bardoli Satyagraha In Bardoli district of Surat under Vallabh Bhai Patel. The government had raised
  the tax rate by 30% despite famine.
All India States Formed  in  1926  whose  first  session  was  held  under  the  presidentship  of  the
People Conference famous leader of Ellore, Diwan Bahadur M. Ramachandra Rai.
Simon The purpose was the review the Act of 1919 after a gap of ten years. The 7
Commission member commission was labeled ‘White Men Commission’. Huge demonstration
  under Govind Vallabh Pant at Lucknow & Lala Lajpat at Lahore. The report of
  Simon  Commission  was  published  in  May  1930.  It   stated  the  constitutional
  experiment  with  Dyarchy  was  unsuccessful  &  in  its  place  recommended  the
  establishment  of  autonomous  government.  It  recommended  special  powers  to
  governor  general  &  governors  to  look  after  the  interest  of  minorities,
  strengthening  the  centre,  increasing  electorate  base  on  communal  basis,
  Indianization of DEFENCE forces, delink Burma from India & Sindh from Bombay.
  The Indians rejected the report as it gave no regard to Dominion Status. It became
  a basis for the Govt of India Act 1935.
Nehru Report, Secretary  of  State,  Lord  Birkenhead  challenged  the  Indians  to  produce  a
1928 constitution that would be acceptable to all. A meeting held at Bombay set up a 8
  member committee headed by Motilal Nehru & others included Bose, Tej Bahadur
  Sapru, Sir Ali Imam, Shahib Qureshi, Sardar Mangal Singh, MS Anney & G.R
  Pradhan.  The  report  was  placed  before  Congress  Session  in  Calcutta  in  1928
  where it was adopted unanimously. It recommended reservation for minorities
  instead of separate electorates. Jinnah & President of Central Sikh league, Sardar
  Kharak  Singh  rejected  it.  Later  Jinnah  convened  an  All  India  Conference  of
  Muslims & drew up a list of 14 point. Jawahar & Bose were not happy with the
  dominion status.
Dandi March Reached Dandi after marching with 78 handpicked followers & formally launched
April 1930 the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the Salt laws. Many muslims kept
  themselves  aloof  but  in  the  NWFP  an  organization  of  Khudai  Khidmatgar
  (Servants of Gods – Red Shirts) under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi)
  participated in full.
I Round table Held under the Chairmanship of Ramsay MacDonald. Failed to resolve any issues
Conference as it was opposed by congress.
Nov 1930  
Gandhi Irwin Pact As  per  it  Gandhi  agreed  to  suspend  the  Civil  Disobedience  Movement  &
March 1931 participate in the Second Round Table conference but most of the leaders did not
  like this pact.
II Round Table At London. Mahatma Gandhi returned to India as no agreement could be reached.
Conference 1931 In January 1932 the civil disobedience movement was resumed.
McDonald The British PM Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement according to which
Communal Award the depressed classes were considered as separate community. Mahatma Gandhi
1932 went on a fast unto death in Yeravada Jail. An agreement was reached with the
  Consent of Mahatma Gandhi & Ambedkar which came to be known as ‘Poona
  Act’.  The  British  government  also  approved  it.  Accordingly  148  seats  were
  reserved in different provincial legislatures in place of 71 as per communal award.
III Round Table The  congress  once  more  didn’t  take  part  in  it.  None  the  less  the  British

 

 

 

Conference 1932 Government issued a white paper which became basis for Govt of India Act 1935.
  Individual Civil Disobedience was launched in 1933
Congress Socialist founded  in  1934  by  Jai  Praksh  Narain  &  Acharya  Narendra  Deva  within  the
Party 1934 Indian National Congress. Its members rejected what they saw as the Communist
  Party of India’s loyalty to the USSR as well as the anti-rational mysticism of
  Mohandas Gandhi. Although a socialist, Jawaharlal Nehru did not join the CSP.
  After independence, the CSP broke away from Congress, under the influence of JP
  Narayan and Basawon Singh (Sinha), to form the Socialist Party of India.
   
August Offer 1940 Envisaged that after the war a representative body of Indians would be set up to
  frame the new constitution.
Individual Started in October 1940. In it Vinoba Bhave, Jawahar Nehru & Brahma Dutt were
Satyagraha 1940 the first 3 satyagrahis.
Cripps Mission Viceroy  Lord  Linlithgow  expanded  is  Executive  council  by  taking  five  more
1942 Indians into it. The Indians were dissatisfied as it did not like the rights of the
  princely states to join or stay out of the Indian constitution. The demand for Pak
  also not considered leading to Muslim league rejecting the plan.
Quit India The fear of an impending Japanese invasion Gandhi launched this campaign. In
Movement the midst the government arrested all Indian leaders – Gandhi at Poona, others at
1942-44 Ahmadnagar fort. Rajendra Prasad was interned in Patna. The Congress Socialist
  Party  whith  its  leaders  like  Ram  Manohar  Lohia,  Achyuta  Patwardhan  played
  important role. Communist Party remained loyal to the British. The Muslims by &
  large remained indifferent.
INA Captain Mohan Singh founded it in 1942. In 1943 he reached Singapore & gave a
  the cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’. He was made the president of the Indian Independence
  League.  The  name  of  the  brigades  were  Subhash,  Gandhi,  Nehru  &  Rani
  Lakshmibai. In Nov 1943, Japan handed over Andamans & Nicobar Islands to
  him. He named  them Shaheed Island & Swaraj Island respectively. The army
  marched towards imphal after registering victory over Kohima. But later Japan
  accepted defeat & Subhas died in a plain crash after crossing Formosa Island.
C.R. Formula 1944 To resolve the constitutional impasse Rajagopalachari evolved a formula in March
  1944. But it was rejected by Jinnah who would not settle without Pakistan.
Wavell Plan & The main provisions were akin to Cripps mission proposals. It essentially dealt
Shimla Conference with  the  Indian  demand  of  self-rule  &  reconstitution  of  viceroy’s  executive
1945 council  giving  a  balanced  representation  to  the  major  communities.  Executive
  council  was  an  interim  arrangement  in  which  all  but  the  Viceory  &  the
  Commander in Chief were to be Indians & all portfolios except defence were to be
  held by Indian members. Conference broke down because of Jinnah’s insistence
  that Muslim league alone represented Indian Muslims & hence no non league
  muslim members could be nominated to viceroy’s council.
Cabinet Mission Pathick Lawrence (secretary of state for India), Stafford Cripps & A.B. Alexander.
1946 Jinnah stuck his demand for Pakistan. It proposed the formation of Union of India
  comprising  both  British  India  &  princely  states  (only  foreign,  defence  &
  Communication).  A  constitutional  assembly  was  to  be  formed  consisting  of
  representatives of Provincial assemblies & princely states, elected on communal
  basis in proportion to the Population of each province. Envisaged interim govt &
  said that until the constitution is framed & the govt estd British forces will not
  withdraw. The Congress & Muslim league accepted it in June 1946.
Elections Following cabinet mission elections were held. Congress secured 205 out of 214

 

 

 

    general seats & had support of 4 sikh members. The Muslim league got 73 out of
    78  Muslim  seats.  Jinnah  became  greatly  disturbed  by  the  election  results.  He
    demanded separate constituent assembly & started instigating violent action. Later
    16  August  1946  was  fixed  as  direct  action  day to withdraw its  acceptance  of
    cabinet  mission  plan.  Communal  riots  broke  out  in  Bengal,  United  Province,
    Punjab, Sindh & NWFP. Interim government was formed with Jawahar Nehru as
    head& 14 members – 6 congress, 5 League, one each Christian, Sikh & Parsi.
    However Muslim league kept out of the Interim government.
INA Trails Held at Red Fort in Delhi. Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru fought the
    case on behalf of three senior INA officers, Shahnawaz khan, P.M. Sehgal & G.S.
    Gurudayal Dhillon led to their acquittal.
RIN Mutiny 1946 Indians serving in the Royal INDIAN NAVY mutined. Around 5000 naval ratings put
    up INA badges.
Mountbatten Plan Mountbatten came to India as Viceroy. He put forth the plan of partition of India
    in 3 June 1947. Punjab & Bengla would be divided into two parts with muslim &
    non muslim majority. Baluchistan had the right to determine which side to join.
    The power would be transferred on 15 August 1947. Referendum were to be held
    in NWFP, Sylhet (to join Assam or East Bengal). Legislative assembly of Sindh
    was to decide whether to join India or not.
Indian Independece The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence act on 18th    July 1947.
Act 1947 Partition on 15th  August. The act provided separate governor generals for the two
    dominions.  Abolition  of  the  post  of  secretary  of  state  for  India.   Pending  the
    adoption  of  new  constitution,  the  administration  of  the  two  dominions  &  the
    provinces  would  be  carried  on  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the
    government of India act 1935 though special powers of the Governor General &
    the  Provincial  governors  would  be  ceased.  Jinnah  became  the  first  governor
    general of Pakistan.
Unification Drive On 5th July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel appealed to the Indian provinces to handover.
    He followed up his appeal with a hurricane tour of 40 days in which he invited all
    the native princes to join the Indian union by 5th  August. In Kashmir Hari Singh
    sent  his  PM  Meharchand  Mahajan  with  the  signed  papers  for  the  merger.  In
    Hyderabad  the  nawab  wanted  to  continue  his  arbitary  rule  with  the  help  of
    Rajakars. Finally after military action, Rajakars were expelled & the instrument of
    accession signed.
Pondicherry & Goa The  other  French  territories  were  Karaikal,  Mahe,Yanam  &  Chanderinagore.
    Chanderinagore had acceded to India on the basis of a plebiscite. In 1954 all the
    French possession in India were formally handed over to India though the legal
    transfer took place in 1962. Operation ‘Vijay’ was carried out for the liberation of
    Goa when satyagraha failed in 1961. It became a state in 1987.

Formation of Linguistic States:–

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Formation Of Linguistic States:–

India is a land of many languages, each with its distinct script, grammar, vocabulary and literary tradition. In 1917, the Congress Party had committed itself to the creation of linguistic provinces in a Free India. After Congress’s Nagpur Session in 1920, the principle was extended and formalized with the creation of provincial Congress Committee by linguistic zones.

The linguistic reorganization of the Congress was encouraged and supported by Mahatma Gandhi. After the bitter partition on the basis of religion the then PM Nehru was apprehensive of dividing country further on the basis of language.

During that time some Marathi speaking Congress members raised the pitches for separate Maharashtra State. Following this demand, other language speaking people too demands a separate state for them. Hence, Constituent Assembly in 1948 appointed the Linguistic Provinces Commission, headed by Justice S.K. Dhar, to enquire into the desirability of linguistic provinces.

The Dhar Commission advised against this at that time reason being it might threaten national unity and also be administratively inconvenient.

JVP Committee

After some time the clamor for linguistic states again got momentum. To appease the vocal votaries of linguistic states, the congress appoints a committee (JVP) in December 1948 consisting of Nehru, Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to examine the question afresh. This JVP Committee revoked the seal of approval that the congress has once put on the principle of linguistic provinces.

The demands for separate state on the linguistic basis didn’t subside. There were renewed movements aimed at linguistic autonomy in 1948, 1949. There was the campaign for Samyukta Karnataka, uniting Kannada speaking spread across the states of Madras, Mysore, Bombay, Hyderabad, Samyukta Maharashtra, Maha Gujarat movement. In case of Punjab, struggle brought together both the factors language and religion (Sikh).

Andhra Movement

After Independence, the speakers of Telugu asked the congress to implement its old resolution in favour of linguistic states.

On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast unto death over the demand for a separate Andhra and expired after fifty-eight days. After his death people were agitated and it was followed by rioting, demonstrations, hartals and violence all over Andhra. The Vishalandhra movement (as the movement for a separate Andhra was called) turned violent. Finally, the then PM, Nehru announced the formation of a separate Andhra State in December 1952.

State Reorganization Commission

The Formation Of Andhra Pradesh spurred the struggle for making of other states on linguistic lines in other parts of the country.

Hence Nehru appointed in August 1953 the states Reorganisation Commission (SRC) with justice Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members, to examine “objectively and dispassionately” the entire question of the reorganization of the states of the Union. The SRC submitted its report in October 1955. It recognized for the most part on the linguistic principle and recommended redrawing of state boundaries on that basis.

The then government accepted the SRC’s recommendations. Finally, the states Reorganization Act was passed by parliament in November 1956. It provided for fourteen states and six centrally administered territories. SRC opposed the splitting of Bombay & Punjab.

Case of Bombay

Therefore, the strongest reaction against SRC’s report came from Maharashtra, where widespread rioting took place. To fulfill their demand of separate Marathi speaking people’s state, there was the broad based Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and on the other hand in Bombay state, there was Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad led the movement for Gujarati people.

After on years of the Reorganization of States Act, the government finally agreed in May 1960, the bifurcate the state of Bombay into Maharashtra, Gujarat with Bombay city being included in Maharashtra and Ahmedabad being made the capital of Gujarat.

Case of Punjab

The other state where an exception was made to the linguistic principle was Punjab. In 1956, the state of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab, which remained a trilingual state having three language speakers-Punjab, Hindu and Pahari within its border. In the Punjabi speaking part of the state, there was a strong demand for carving out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi Speaking State). This demand got communal overtones. The Akali Dal led Sikh Communalists, while the Jan Sangh, led Hindu communalists.

SRC had rejected the demands in Punjab, as it would not solve either the language or the communal problem of Punjab. Finally in 1966, Indira Gandhi agreed to the division of Punjab into two Punjabi and Hindi speaking status of Punjab and Haryana, with the Pahari speaking district of Kangra and a port of the Hoshiarpur district being merged with HP.

Finally, after more than ten years of continuous strife and popular struggles, the linguistic reorganization of India was largely completed

ANCIENT KINGDOM

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Rajrishitulyakul

Rajrishitulyakul dynasty ruled over the south Kaushal. They ruled from 5th to 6th century AD. From the bronze inscription it is known that they followed Guptsamvata. This shows that accepted the supremacy of The Gupta Dynasty.

There are six known rulers of the Rajrishikulya Dynasty. They are all follows:

  1. Sur
  2. Dayit I
  3. Vibhishan
  4. Buimsen I
  5. Dayitverman II
  6. Bhimesen II

 

Nal Dynasty

NalDyansty ruled over the south Kaushal in the present day Bastar area. They ruled from 5th to 12th century. From the Rajim Inscription it is known that was the founder of NalDyansty.

Nal dynasty ruler Bhavdatverman and Skanda vermin has made Pushkari the capital city.

Vilas Tung was the ruler of Nal Dynasty, he made the Rajiv Lochan temple.

Nals were the contemporary of Vakatakas and Bastar was the centre of their power. Nal lost their power after defeating from Somvanshis.

 

Sharabpuriya Dynasty

It was established in 6th century. Sharabh, the father of Narendra has established this dynasty.

Sharbhpur was the capital of this dynasty, which is near to Sirpur(Raipur district). There are two bronze inscription in Pipardula(Sanrangarh) and second Kurud(Raipur). These two inscription writes about Narendra’s kindness and his donation to poor. There is another ruler from this dynasty, Prashanna, who started gold coins and established Prashanapur near the banks of river Nidila. Sharbhpur, Shripur and Prashanpaur are written in bronze inscription. Sudevraj established Shripur. In 6th century Sharabpuriya dynasty came to known as Amaryakul dynasty.

 

 

Pandu Dynasty

 

The first ruler of this dynasty was Udayan. Other rulers are Indrabal, Ishandev, Rankemedi and Bhavdev.

Tivardev made Pandu dynasty a strong kingdom. He was the follower of Shaivism. He adopted Kosalapati title after winning over Kaushal, Utkal and some other Mandals.

Mahanabhdev was the son of Tivardev. He started calling himself as somvanshis. In various inscription it could easily be seen. They patronized all the religions including Buddhists. Many scripture and Viharas are found recently found in recent historical search. Four Bronze inscription of Ballarjuna have been found from bardula, Lodhia, Mallar and Bonda.

 

 

Somvanshi

 

Somvanshiruled in south Kaushal from 9th to 11th century.

They considered themselves as the rulers of Kaushal, Utkal and Kalinga. They have adopted Trikalingadhipati title as well.

In their coin image of Rajlakskmi could be seen easily.

The prominent rulers of this dynasty are Shivgupta, Mahashivgupta, Bhimrath II, Dharmaratha, Nahutha, Yayati and Chandihar. Kalchuris continuously attacked on their kingdom. This has shaken their kingdom.

Economic Terms

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Depository Receipt

A depositary receipt (DR) is a type of negotiable (transferable) financial security that is traded on a local stock exchange but represents a security, usually in the form of , that is issued by a foreign publicly listed company. The DR, which is a physical certificate, allows investors to hold Shares in equity of other countries. One of the most common types of DRs is the American depositary receipt (ADR), which has been offering companies, investors and traders global Investment opportunities since the 1920s.

Economic Terms” class=”read-more content-read-more” href=”https://Sikkim.pscnotes.com/prelims-notes/economy/economic-terms/#more-828″>Read moreEconomic Terms

Climate Change Mitigation

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  • Alternative Energy sources
    • Renewable energy
    • Nuclear Power
    • Reduce the carbon intensity of fossil fuels
  • Energy efficiency and conservation
    • Transport and urban planning
    • Building design
    • Reforestation and avoid deforestation
    • Eliminating waste methane
  • Geoengineering
    • Greenhouse gas remediation
      • Biomass
      • Carbon air capture
      • Carbon capture and storage
    • Societal control
      • Population
      • Sustainable life-style

Hot DESERT ECOSYSTEM  

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Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall, .or sometimes in hot regions where there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the annual cycle.

Lack’ of rain in the mid latitude is often due to stable high pressure zones; deserts in temperate regions often lie in “rain shadows”, that is where high mountains block off moisture from the seas.

The climate:of these biomes is modified by altitUde and latitude. At greater distance from the equator the deSerts are cold and hot near equator and tropics.

As the large volume of water passes through the irrigation system, salts may be left behind that will gradually accumulate over the years until they become limiting, unless means of avoiding this difficulty are devised

Adaptations

(i)  These plants conserve water by following methods:

They are mostly shrubs. Leaves are absent or reduced in size.

Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.

In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

Root system is well developed and spread over large area.

The annuals wherever present germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season, and not in summer and winter.

(ii) The animals are physiologically and behaviorally adapted to desert conditions.

They are fast runners.

They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun’s heat during day time.

They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine.

Animals and birds usually have long legs to keep the body away from the hot ground.

Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live without drinking water for several days.

Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from the seeds which they eat.

Mammals as a group are poorly adapted to  deserts

Indian Desert — Thar desert (hot)

The climate of this region is characterised by excessive drought, the rainfall being scanty and , irregular.

The winter rains of northern India rarely penetrate into the region.

The proper desert plants may be divided into two main groups.

  1. i) depending directly upon on rain and
  2. ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean water.

The first group consists of two types:

the ‘ephemera’s’ and the rain perennials’.

The ephemera’s are delicate annuals, apparently free from any xerophilous adaptations, having slender stems and root-systems and often large Flowers.

They appear almost immediately after rain, develop flowers and fruits in an incredibly short   time, and die as soon as the surface layer of the soil dries up.

The rain perennials are visible above the ground only during the rainy season, but have a perennial underground stem.

The second group – depending on the presence of subterranean water

By far the largest number of indigenous plants are capable of absorbing water from deep below the surface of the ground by means of a well-developed root system, the main part of which generally consists of a slender, woody tap root of extraordinary length.

Generally, various other xerophilous adaptations are resorted to such as reduced leaves, thick hairy growth, succulence, coatings of wax, thick cuticle, protected stomata, etc., all having for  their object of reduction of transpiration.

 

Fauna

It is home to some of India’s most magnificent grasslands and sanctuary for a charismatic bird, the Great Indian Bustard. Among the mammal fauna, the blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara, caracal, Sandgrouse and desert fox inhabit the open plains, grasslands, and saline depressions.

The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only known population of Asiatic wild Ass lies in the remote part of Great Rarm, Gujarat.

It is the migration flyway used by cranes and flamingos.

Some endemic flora species of Thar Desert includes Calligonum Polygonoides, Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella undulate, Cenchrus biflorus and Sueda fruticosa , etc

Tax Reforms in India, Direct & Indirect Tax Reforms. Subsidies- Cash Transfer of Subsidy Issue.

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Tax Reforms in India

Sience 1990 ie the liberalization of Indian economy saw the beginning of Taxation reforms in the nation. The taxation system in the nation has been subjected to consistent and comprehensive reform. Following factors arise the need for tax reforms in India:-

  • Tax resources must be maximized for increased social sector investment in the economy.
  • International competitiveness must be imparted to Indian economy in the globalized world.
  • Transaction costs are high which must be reduced.
  • Investment flow should be maximized.
  • Equity should be improved
  • The high cost nature of Indian economy should be changed.
  • Compliance should be increased.
Direct & Indirect Tax Reforms

Direct tax reforms undertaken by the government are as follows:-

  • Reduction and rationalization of tax rates, India now has three rates of income tax with the highest being at 30%.
  • Simplification of process, through e-filling and simplifying the tax return forms.
  • Strengthening of administration to check the leakage and increasing the tax base.
  • Widening of tax base to include more tax payers in the tax net.
  • Withdrawal of tax exceptions gradually.
  • Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) was introduced for the ‘Zero Tax’ companies.
  • The direct tax code of 2010 replace the outdated tax code of 1961.

Indirect tax reforms undertaken by the government are as follows:-

  • Reduction in the peak tariff rates.
  • reduction in the number of slabs
  • Progressive change from specific duty to ad valor-em tax.
  • VAT is introduced.
  • GST has been planned to be introduced.
  • Negative list of services since 2012.
Subsidies- Cash Transfer of Subsidy Issue.

A subsidy is a benefit given by the government to groups or individuals usually in the form of a cash payment or tax reduction. The subsidy is usually given to remove some type of burden and is often considered to be in the interest of the public.

Direct Cash Transfer Scheme is a poverty reduction measure in which government subsidies and other benefits are given directly to the poor in cash rather than in the form of subsidies.

It can help the government reach out to identified beneficiaries and can plug leakages. Currently, ration shop owners divert subsidised PDS grains or kerosene to open market and make fast buck. Such Leakages could stop. The scheme will also enhance efficiency of welfare schemes.

The money is directly transferred into bank accounts of beneficiaries. LPG and kerosene subsidies, pension payments, scholarships and employment guarantee scheme payments as well as benefits under other government welfare programmes will be made directly to beneficiaries. The money can then be used to buy services from the market. For eg. if subsidy on LPG or kerosene is abolished and the government still wants to give the subsidy to the poor, the subsidy portion will be transferred as cash into the banks of the intended beneficiaries.

It is feared that the money may not be used for the intended purpose and men may squander it.

Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) has already begun on a pilot basis in Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Karnataka, Pondicherry and Sikkim. The government claims the results are encouraging.

Only Aadhar card holders will get cash transfer. As of today, only 21 crore of the 120 crore people have Aadhar cards. Two other drawbacks are that most BPL families don’t have bank accounts and several villages don’t have any bank branches. These factors can limit the reach of cash transfer.

subsidity