Environment

Notification on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of developmental projects 1994 under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 making EIA  mandatory for 29 categories of developmental projects. One more item was added to the list in January, 2000. environmental impact assessment statutory for 30 activities

Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 has categorized the developmental projects  in two categories, i.e., Category A and Category B

‘Category A’ projects are appraised at national level by expert appraisal committee

India has constituted the State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC)  to decentralize the environmental clearance process

The objective of EIA is to foresee and address potential environmental problems/  concerns at an early stage of project planning and design.

The EIA notification establishes four stages for obtaining Environmental Clearance.

1. Screening
2. Scoping and consideration of alternatives Baseline data collection
3. Impact prediction
4. Assessment of alternatives, delineation of mitigation measures and environmental impact statement
5. Public hearing
6. Environment Management Plan Decision making
7. Monitoring the clearance conditions

Screening- It is only for Categories B

Screening Criteria are based upon:

• Scales of investment; •       Type of development; and, •      Location of development

B1 Categories project require Environmental Impact Assessment while B2 category projects are exempted from EIA.

State Level Expert Appraisal Committee determine about project categories

 

Staffing refers to the managerial function of employing and developing human resources for carrying out the various managerial and non-managerial activities in an organisation. This involves determining the manpower requirement, and the methods of recruiting, selecting, training and developing the people for various positions created in the organisation.

 

Staffing function is an integral part of human resource management and, in its wider sense, also includes the activities of determining the remuneration of workers, appraising their performance, and deciding on their promotion, transfers, etc.

 

The process of staffing starts with ascertaining the required number of various categories of employees for the organisation. This is known as manpower planning. It decides the kinds of staff and the number of staff required for the organisation. This is done through several methods like job analysis, workload analysis, etc. The next thing to be done in the staffing process is the recruitment exercise, i.e., finding out the available manpower from internal and external sources. The next step is to select the right person from the available manpower through tests and interviews and make appointments. This is followed by their placement on the jobs and necessary introduction of the work environment and the rules of compensation, promotion, transfer etc. Thus, the various steps involved in the process of staffing are as follows.

 

• Manpower Planning: Manpower planning refers to the process of estimating the manpower requirement of an organisation. While estimating the manpower requirement, the management generally keeps in mind the available Infrastructure including the technology, production schedule, market fluctuation, demand forecasts, government’s policies and so on. It tentatively decides the kinds of staff as well as the number of staff needed for the organisation. The focus of the manpower planning is to get right number of qualified people at the right time.

 

• Job Analysis:. It is a pre-requisite for any recruitment exercise. The job analysis helps in determining the qualifications, skills and experience required for various categories of employees. It involves:

(i)Job Description: Identification of each job in terms of duties and responsibilities.

 

(ii) Job Specification: Determining the abilities and skills that are required for performing the job.

These two aspects of job analysis (job description and job specification) are useful in recruitment and selection of employees so as to find the right person for the job.

 

• Recruitment: The process of finding and attracting suitable applicants for employment for various activities of the organisation using the internal as well as the external sources.

 

• Internal Sources: In any business, existing employees expect that they will have chances of promotion and will be considered for higher positions before outsiders are considered. Managers therefore may promote and transfer some of the existing employees to fill the vacant positions. The advantage of internal recruitment is that it is easier for managers to fill vacancies as they are conversant with the abilities and skills of their subordinates and have records of their performances. Employees also feel happy as their work performance is recognised by management through promotion. However, there is one major drawback of recruitment through internal sources i.e., the organisation is deprived of the benefit of inducting fresh blood into its system.

 

• External Sources: All vacancies cannot be filled up from within the organisation. Existing employees may lack the required skill, initiative and qualification needed for the jobs involved. Hence managers have to recruit some persons from outside the organisation. Not only that the external recruitment provides a wide choice from among a large number of external candidates from which employees may be recruited. The workers and office employees at the lower level are often recruited from outside the organisation. The various external sources of recruitment are as follows:

 

(a)Media Advertisements: You must have seen advertisements in newspapers about vacancies in organisations. The advertisement contains details about the job, its nature, the qualification required to do the job, how to apply, etc.This is a very popular medium of advertising. The job advertisements are also given in magazines, specialised employment magazines like Employment News, RozgarSamachar, etc. Now-a-days we also commonly find such advertisements in various electronic media like television and Internet. Such advertisements normally get a very good response from the prospective candidates.

 

(b)Employment Exchanges: In India, employment exchanges have been setup by the government for bringing together job-seekers and employers who are looking for employees. Those who are in search of employment get themselves registered with the local Employment Exchanges which keep a record of all such persons in detail who require help in finding jobs. The employer informs about the vacancies to the nearest Employment Exchange. The Employment Exchange, in turn, identifies the names of the qualified employment seekers already registered with it, and forwards them to the employer for consideration. Thus, if you are seeking a job after passing the senior secondary examination, it would be better if you get yourself registered with an Employment Exchange. It may forward your name to the prospective employers keeping in view the suitability of the job as per your qualifications.

 

(c)Educational Institutions: Now-a-days, companies/big organisations maintain a close liaison with the universities, vocational institutes and management institute for recruitment of their staff. As and when the need arises, the companies send one or more of their senior executives to the institutions of repute imparting such professional/technical education to students. These executives take the interview of the interested candidates and select the suitable candidates as per their requirement. This process is popularly known as campus interview and is found to be an effective source of recruitment of managers, engineers, technicians etc. for many companies on a regular basis.

 

(d)Unsolicited Application : Those looking for jobs often apply on their own initiative. They assume that certain vacancies are likely to arise, and apply without references to any job advertisement. Managers keep record ofsuch applications and contact the suitable candidates when they need them.

 

(e)Recruitment at the Factory gate : This is found mainly in case of factory workers to be recruited on daily wages. Such workers gather in the morning at the factory gate to serve as casual workers. Very often existing regular employees go on leave, and their vacancies are filled up by recruitment at the factory gate. These casual workers having served in the factory for sometime may be considered for regular employment at some stage.

 

(f)Referrals: Quite often the management gets references about interested workers from different sources like workers unions, previous employees, existing employees, clients of the organisation etc. These sources are important because their recommendations are made by people who are associated with the organisation and are fully conversant with its requirements. Sometimes we also receive recommendations from our friends and relatives to employ persons known to them. But one should be very much cautious while considering such recommendations.

 

(g)Private Employment Agencies: In urban areas, a number of private organisations have started functioning as employment agencies. These agencies register with them the names of the individuals who are seeking employment and try to arrange job interviews for such candidates. Companies often getting touch with such agencies to provide them the details of suitable candidates for various jobs.

 

 

• Selection: Selection refers to the process of choosing the most suitable person from among the list of interested candidates. It involves going through the qualification and experience of all candidates and matching them with the expectation for the job so as to decide on the most suitable ones for the job. The entire process goes through a number of steps which may be called as selection procedure. Selection Procedures stated above, the selection procedure consists of a number of steps in logical order to identify the candidates who are to be finally appointed. These steps are :

 

• Screening the Applications: After receiving the applications from the candidates through recruitment process, the same must be examined to decide which ones deserve to be considered and followed up. Screening is usually done by a senior officer of the company or by a screening committee. The purpose of screening is to prepare a list of eligible candidates who are to be evaluated further. Candidates not eligible are thereby excluded from further consideration

 

• Holding Tests: After screening the applications, eligible candidates are asked to appear for selection tests. These tests are made to discover and measure the skill and abilities of the candidates in terms of the requirements of the job. The nature of test depends upon the nature of the job involved

 

• Selection Interview: Interview is the most important part of the selection procedure. It serves as a means of checking the information given in the application form and making an overall assessment of the candidate’s suitability for the job.

In an interview, the candidate has a face-to-face interaction with the employer or representatives of the employer, where they try to judge the ability of the candidates. They also get an opportunity to go into the details of the candidate’s background which helps a lot in assessing the candidate’s suitability.

 

• Checking of References: In addition to the requisite educational qualification, skill and experience, it is expected that the candidates who are to be considered for employment must have other qualities like balanced temperament, honesty, loyalty, etc. These qualities cannot be judged on the basis of any test. Therefore, information is obtained and verified from the heads of educational institutions where the candidates have studied, or from the persons whose names are given by the candidates as referee, or from their previous employers.

 

• Medical Examination: Candidates finally selected for the job are asked to undergo medical examination to see whether the selected candidates are physically fit for the job. A proper medical examination ensures higher standard of health of the employees and their physical fitness which, in turn, reduces the labour turnover, absenteeism and accidents.

 

• Issue of Appointment Letter: Candidates finally selected are offered to join the organisation for which a formal appointment letter is issued containing the nature of job, the remuneration, pay scale, and other terms and conditions relating to employment. Usually a reasonable time is given to the candidates to join the organisation.

 

 

 

 

 

• Induction: Induction is the process of introducing new employees to the organisation. The new employees should know under whom and with whom he/she is to work, get acquainted and adjusted to the work environment, get a general idea about the rules and regulations, working conditions etc. Usually the immediate supervisor of the new employee introduces him to his work environment. A proper induction programme is likely to reduce his anxiety on how to cope with the work and how to become part of the organisation and helps in development of a favourable attitude towards the organisation and the job.

 

• Training and Development: the employees to improve their knowledge and skill so as to be able to perform their tasks more efficiently is known as training. It is an organised activity for increasing the knowledge and skills of people for a specific purpose. The term ‘development ‘refers to the process of not only building up the skill and abilities for specific purpose but also the overall competence of employees to undertake more difficult and challenging tasks. It is generally used with reference to the training of managers and executives. Training and Development Training is an act of increasing the knowledge and technical skills of an employee for doing a particular job efficiently.

 

Development refers to the learning opportunities designed to help employees to grow. It involves growth an individual in all areas. Development help workforce to improve technical skills, problem solving skills and decision making skills. Training is necessary for new employees as well as the existing employees for improving their performance at work. For new employees, training is necessary to help them get acquainted with the method of operation and skill requirement of the job. For existing employees, training at periodical intervals is helpful for learning better ways of doing the work, and also as and when they have to undertake new jobs. Thus, training helps employees to improve their knowledge and skill and make them perform their tasks more efficiently. It also helps them in promotion and improves their attitudes and confidence levels.

 

Importance of Training and Development Benefits of training for organisations:

 

Methods of Training There are different methods of giving training to the employees which can be divided into two broad categories.

 

On-the-Job methods and Off-the-Job methods.

 

1. On-the-Job methods : In these methods, the employees learn about their jobs while doing the work duly assisted by their supervisors or seniors. These methods encourage self-learning through practice. Job instruction or coaching, and job rotation, learning while working as an assistant to a senior, understudy positions, temporary promotions are some of the common methods of on-the-job training.

 

2. Off-the-Job methods: These methods involve training employees away from the work place so that experts may conduct the training and employees are free from immediate pressure of completing the jobs at hand. Lectures with demonstration, conferences, case discussions, video shows and films are some of the common methods used as off-the-job training methods. Then, there is another off the job method of training called vestibule training. The vestibule training refers to the training in specially designed workshops in which an attempt is made to duplicate as closely as possible the actual conditions of the work place. In such workshops a large number of employees can be trained in a relatively short period of time.

 

 

• Performance Appraisal: Performance appraisal means judging the performance of employees. Specifically, it means judging the relative abilities of employees at work in a systematic manner. This enables managers to identify employees who are performing the assigned work satisfactorily, and those who are not able to do so, and why. To be fair, performance appraisal needs to be carried out using the same methods and keeping in view uniform standards of work. Generally it is the responsibility of supervisors to carry outperformance appraisal of their subordinates, and report it to their own superiors.

 

The standard of performance or the expected level of performance of an employee on a job forms the basis of judging how well the employee has performed, and whether one employee is more efficient than the other in doing a similar job. The yardstick placed may be the desired quantity of output, the quality of work done, minimisation of wastage of materials caused in the process of work etc. The choice depends upon the type of job involved. However, where quantity or number of units produced or wastage of materials form the basis of appraisal, it is likely to be more accurate. On the other hand, quality of work done may be difficult to measure and hence performance appraisal may not be very accurate.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Some Important things in staffing

 

What is Probation Period?

 

In most of the organisations the candidates are not initially appointed on permanent basis because it is considered better to try them for a few months on the job itself. This period of service is known as the period of probation. It is necessary because no procedure of selection can fully establish the qualities of a selected candidate. It is only by observing a person at work that one can find out how he performs and also how he behaves with his superior and fellow employees. If during the probation period, his performances not found satisfactory, his period of probation may be extended. The management may also transfer him to some other job at which he may be expected to do better.

 

What is Difference between recruitment and selection:-

 

Recruitment and selection are the two essential components of the staffing process. While the recruitment helps in attracting suitable candidates, selection helps in finding out the candidates who meet the requirements of the job. These are closely inter-connected activities. However, recruitment and selection differ in certain respects. While the recruitment refers to the process of attracting good applicants for jobs, selection identifies the most suitable amongst the applicants. In the recruitment process, the effort is to attract the candidates as many as possible and it is regarded as a positive process. But, selection is a negative process as it involves rejection of many candidates. Recruitment involves decisions as regard to the sources of potential candidates. Selection is made through different steps in the procedure adopted. Recruitment helps the manager to attract good candidates

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

S.No	Name of National Parks/ Wild Life Sanctuary	District	Area(Sq.km.)
National Parks
1	Keoladeo National Park	Bharatpur	28.73
2	Ranthambore National Park	Sawai Madhopur	392.50
		Sub Total	421.23
Sanctuaries
1	Bandh Baratha WL Sanctuary	Bharatpur	199.50
2	Bassi WL Sanctuary	Chittorgarh	138.69
3	Bhensrodgarh WL Sanctuary	Chittorgarh	229.14
4	Darrah Game Sanctuary	Kota, Jhalawar	274.41
5	Desert WL Sanctuary	Barmer, Jaisalmer	3,162.00
6	Fulwari ki Nal WL Sanctuary	Udaipur	492.68
7	Jaisamand WL Sanctuary	Udaipur	52.34
8	Jamwa Ramgarh WL Sanctuary	Jaipur	300.00
9	Jawahar Sagar WL Sanctuary	Kota	153.41
10	Keladevi WL Sanctuary	Karoli,Sawai Madhopur	676.40
11	Kesarbagh WL Sanctuary	Dholpur	14.76
12	Kumbalgarh WL Sanctuary	Udaipur,Rajsamand,Pali	608.57
13	Mount Abu WL Sanctuary	Sirohi	112.98
14	Nahargarh WL Sanctuary	Jaipur	50.00
15	National Chambal WL Sanctuary	Kota, S.Madhopur, Bundi, Dholpur, Karauli	280.00
16	Ramgarh Vishdhari WL Sanctuary	Bundi	252.79
17	Ramsagar WL Sanctuary	Dholpur	34.40
18	Sajjangarh WL Sanctuary	Udaipur	5.19
19	Sariska WL Sanctuary	Alwar	557.50
20	Sawai Manshingh WL Sanctuary	Sawai Madhopur	127.76
21	Shergarh WL Sanctuary	Kota	98.70
22	Sitamata WL Sanctuary	Chittorgarh,Udaipur	422.94
23	Tal Chappar WL Sanctuary	Churu	7.19
24	Todagarh Rawali WLSanctuary	Ajmer,Pali,Rajsamand	463.03
25	Van Vihar WL Sanctuary	Dholpur	25.60
		Sub Total	8,739.98
		Grand Total	9,161.21

 

1. The term ecosystem was coined by                                                                                          A. Bennett. J.W.              B.  Odum. E.R                                                                                          C. Tansley                         D.  Walter, H.

 

2. The term ecology was coined by:                                                                                               a. Eton                                  b. HaeckeL       c. Odum, E.P .                     d. Thomas. D.S.G.

 

3. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the code given below:
4. The web that links all organisms with their physical environment is known as biosphere.
5. The biosphere extends from the bottom of the ocean trenches up to 8 km above the sea level.
6. Biosphere is synonymous with ecosphere
7. Biosphere is found only on Earth in the Solar System.

 

Code:

1. 1,2 and 3 arc correct, b. 1,3 and 4 are correct,
2. 2, 3 and 4 are correct. d. 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct.

 

4. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the code given below
5. The scientific study of the interaction between organisms and environment is known as ecology.
6. The term ecology was coined by Odum, E.R

Code:

1. Only 1 is correct. b. Only 2 is correct.
2. Both 1 and 2 are correct. d. Neither 1 nor 2 is correct.

 

5. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the code given below:

1 Phosphorus is abundant in nature                           .

2. Phosphorus is an excretory product.
3. Phosphorus cycle can be disrupted by the use of chemical fertilizers.
4. Phosphates in the Soil are taken into the plant for protection.

 

Code:

1. 1,2 and 3 are correct. b. 1,3 and 4 are correct
2. 2, 3, and 4 are correct. d. 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct.
3. The mean productivity is highest in which of the following?
4. Grassland b. Continental shelf
5. Cultivated land d. Fresh water
6. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the code that follows:
7. A food chain is the sequence of energy transfer from the low er levels to the higher trophic levels.
8. All animals depend on plants for their food.
9. Fox may eat grass.

Code:

1. 1 and 2 arc correct. b. 1 and 3 are correct
2. 2 and 3 are correct. d. 1, 2 and 3 are correct.

 

8. Which one of the following is not a primary consumer:
9. Buffalo b. Goat
10. Lizard d. Rabbit

 

9. Which one of the following is not a tertian- consumer?
10. Frog b. Leopard
11. Lion d. Vulture
12. Arrange the following animals in a sequential trophic level and select the correct answer using the code given below:
13. Eagle 2. Frog
14. Insect 4. Plant
15. Snake

Code:

1. Plant, insect, frog,eagle and snake
2. Plant, insect, frog, snake and eagle
3. Plant, frog,insect, snake and eagle
4. Plant,insect,frog, eagle and snake

 

 

The interaction between the organisms is fundamental for its survival and functioning of ecosystem as a whole.

Type of Biotic Interaction

1. Mutualism:

both species benefit.

Example: in pollination mutualisms, the pollinator gets food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its pollen transferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization (reproduction).

 

2. Commensalism:

one species benefits, the other is unaffected.

Example: cow dung provides food and shelter to dung beetles. The beetles have no effect on the cows.

 

3. Competition:

both species are harmed by the interaction.

Example: if two species eat the same food, and there isn’t enough for both, both may have access to less food than they would if alone. They both suffer a shortage of food

 

4. Predation and parasitism:

one species benefits, the other is harmed.

Example : predation—one fish kills and eats ..parasitism: tick gains benefit by sucking blood; host is harmed by losing blood.

 

5. Amensalism :

One species is harmed, the other is unaffected.

Example: A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree.

 

6. Neutralism :

There is no net benefit or harm to either species. Perhaps in some interspecific interactions, the costs and benefits experienced by each partner are exactly the same so that they sum to zero

 

found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than that of a true desert.

vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates.

In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India’s grasslands are mainly composed of steppes and savannas.

Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline soil; in western Rajasthan, where the climate is semi-arid,

The major difference between steppes and savannas is that all the forage in the steppe is  provided only during the brief wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely from grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also from the  smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season.

 

Types of Grasslands

1. semi-arid zone (The Sehima-dichanthium type)

It covers the northern portion of Gujarat, Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Punjab.

The topography is broken up by hill spurs and sand dunes.

senegal, Calotropis gigantia, Cassia auriculata, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oloides and zizyphus Nummularia which make the savanna rangeland look like scrub.

2. dry sub humid zone (The Dichanthium- cenchrus-lasitrrus type)

It covers the whole of peninsular India (except Nilgiri).

The thorny bushes are Acacia catechu, Mimosa, Zizyphus (ber) and sometimes fleshy Euphorbia, along with low trees of Anogeissus latifolia, Soymida febrifuga and other deciduous species.

Sehima (grass)is more prevalent on gravel and the cover maybe 27%. Dichanthium (grass) flourishes on level soils and may cover 80% of the ground.

3)  moist subhumid zone(The Phragmities- sacchrum-imperata type)

It covers the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern India.

The topography is level, low lying and ill-drained.

Bothriochloa pertusa, Cypodon dactylon and     Dichanthium annulatum are found in transition zones.

The common trees and shrubs are Acacia arabica, hogeissus, latifolia, Butea monosperma,

Phoenic sylvestris and Zizyphus nummularia.

Some of these are replaced by Borassus sp in the palm savannas especially near Sunderbans.

4) The Themeda – Arundinella type

This extends to the humid montane regions and moist sub-humid axeas of Assam, Manipur,West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and. Jammu and Kashmir.

The savanna is derived from the humid forests on account of shifting cultivation and sheep grazing.

Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi and Central Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur

Role of fire

fire plays, an important role in the management  of grasslands.

Under moist conditions fire favours grass over trees, whereas in dry conditions fire is often necessary to maintain grasslands against the invasion of desert shrubs.

Burning increases the forage yields, e.g. Cynodon daotylon

 

Aquatic systems are not called biomes,

The major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to salinity, levels  of dissolved nutrients; water temperature, depth of sunlight penetration.

 

1. Fresh Water Ecosystem-Fresh water ecosystem are classified as lotic

(moving water) or lentic (still or stagnant water).

 

2. Marine Ecosystem-
3. Estuaries-Coastal bays, river mouths and tidal marshes  form  the

estuaries.  In estuaries, fresh water from rivers meet ocean water and the two are mixed by action of tides.

Estuaries are highly productive as compared to the adjacent river or sea

 

Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall, .or sometimes in hot regions where there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the annual cycle.

Lack’ of rain in the mid latitude is often due to stable high pressure zones; deserts in temperate regions often lie in “rain shadows”, that is where high Mountains block off moisture from the seas.

The Climate:of these biomes is modified by altitUde and latitude. At greater distance from the equator the deSerts are cold and hot near equator and tropics.

As the large volume of water passes through the Irrigation system, salts may be left behind that will gradually accumulate over the years until they become limiting, unless means of avoiding this difficulty are devised

Adaptations

(i)  These Plants conserve water by following methods:

They are mostly shrubs. Leaves are absent or reduced in size.

Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.

In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for Photosynthesis.

Root system is well developed and spread over large area.

The annuals wherever present germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season, and not in summer and winter.

(ii) The animals are physiologically and behaviorally adapted to desert conditions.

They are fast runners.

They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun’s heat during day time.

They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine.

Animals and birds usually have long legs to keep the body away from the hot ground.

Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live without drinking water for several days.

Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from the seeds which they eat.

Mammals as a group are poorly adapted to  deserts

Indian Desert — Thar desert (hot)

The climate of this region is characterised by excessive drought, the rainfall being scanty and , irregular.

The winter rains of northern India rarely penetrate into the region.

The proper desert plants may be divided into two main groups.

1. i) depending directly upon on rain and
2. ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean water.

The first group consists of two types:

the ‘ephemera’s’ and the rain perennials’.

The ephemera’s are delicate annuals, apparently free from any xerophilous adaptations, having slender stems and root-systems and often large Flowers.

They appear almost immediately after rain, develop flowers and fruits in an incredibly short   time, and die as soon as the surface layer of the https://exam.pscnotes.com/soil”>Soil dries up.

The rain perennials are visible above the ground only during the rainy season, but have a perennial underground stem.

The second group – depending on the presence of subterranean water

By far the largest number of indigenous plants are capable of absorbing water from deep below the surface of the ground by means of a well-developed root system, the main part of which generally consists of a slender, woody tap root of extraordinary length.

Generally, various other xerophilous adaptations are resorted to such as reduced leaves, thick hairy Growth, succulence, coatings of wax, thick cuticle, protected stomata, etc., all having for  their object of reduction of Transpiration.

 

Fauna

It is Home to some of India’s most magnificent grasslands and sanctuary for a charismatic bird, the Great Indian Bustard. Among the mammal fauna, the blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara, caracal, Sandgrouse and desert fox inhabit the open plains, grasslands, and saline depressions.

The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only known Population of Asiatic wild Ass lies in the remote part of Great Rarm, Gujarat.

It is the Migration flyway used by cranes and flamingos.

Some endemic Flora species of Thar Desert includes Calligonum Polygonoides, Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella undulate, Cenchrus biflorus and Sueda fruticosa , etc

 

Cold Desert/ Temperate Desert

Cold desert of India include areas of ladak, leh and kargil of kashmir and spiti valley of Himachal  Pradesh and some parts of northern Uttaranchal and Sikkim. Lies in rain shadow of Himalaya Oak, pine, deodar, birch and rhododendron are the important trees and bushes found there. Major  animal include yaks, dwarf cows, and goats.

Severe arid conditions – Dry Atmosphere

Mean annual rainfall less than 400mm

Soil type – sandy to sandy loam , Soil pH – neutral to slight alkaline.

Soil nutrient – Poor organic matter content ,low water retention capacity

Bio-diversity

Cold desert is the home of highly adaptive, rare endangered fauna, such as

Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali, Ladakh Uriyal, Bharal, Tibetan Antelope (chiru),

Tibetan Gazelle, Wild Yak, Snow Leopard, Brown Bear, Tibetan Wolf, Wild

Dog and Tibetan Wild Ass (‘Kiang’ a close relative of the Indian wild ass) ,

Woolly hare, Black Necked  Crane, etc.

India as a signatory to United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

(UNCCD) has submitted four National Reports to UNCCD

in the years 2000, 2002, 2006 and 2010

Some of the major programmes currently implemented that address issues related to land degradation and desertification is:-

1. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP),
2. National Afforestation Programme (NAP),
3. National Mission for Green India (GIM),
4. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural EMPLOYMENT Guarantee Scheme
5. (MGNREGS),
6. Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Project and Flood Prone River,
7. National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA),
8. Desert Development Programme (DDP)
9. Fodder and Feed Development Scheme-component of Grassland Development including
10. Grass Reserves, Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM)  programme etc

 

 

 

Fresh water Ecosystems– The salt content of fresh bodies is very low, always less than 5 ppt  (parts per thousand). E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs, streams, and rivers

Marine ecosystems – the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of sea water (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g shallow seas and open ocean   Brackish water ecosystems- these water bodies have salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.

 

AQUATIC ORGANISMS

The aquatic organisms are classified on the basis Of their one of occurrence and their ability to cross these zones. can be classified on the basis of their life form or location into five groups

1. Neuston:

These are unattached organisms which live at the air-water interface such as floating Plants, etc.

Some organisms spend most of their lives on top of the air-water interface such as water striders, while others spend most of their time just beneath the air-water interface and obtain most of their food within the water.

E.g., beetles and back-swimmers.

2. Periphyton:

These are organisms which remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud such as sessile algae and their associated group of animals.

3. Plankton

This group includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and

animals like crustaceans and protozoans (https://exam.pscnotes.com/zooplankton”>Zooplankton) found in all aquatic

ecosysteins, except certain swift moving waters

The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that their distribution is

controlled, largely, by currents in the aquatic ecosystems.

4. Nekton:

This group contains animals which are  swimmers.

The nektons are relatively large and powerful as they have to overcome the water currents.

5. Benthos:

The benthic organisms are those found living in the bottom of the water mass.

Practically every AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM contains well developed benthos

Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats

1. Sunlight :

Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes down the column of water.

The depth to which Light penetrates a lake determines the extent of plant distribution.

Based on light penetration and plant distribution they are classified as photic and aphotic zones

Photic zone:

It is the upper layer of the aquatic ecosystems, up to which light penetrates and within which photosynthetic activity is confined.

The depth of this zone depends on the transparency of water.

photic (or .”euphotic”) zone is the lighted and usually well-mixed portion that extends from the lake surface down to where the light level is 1% of that at the surface.

Aphotic zone:

The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and plant Growth are restricted forms the aphotic zone.

Only Respiration activity takes place.(photic-both respiration and Photosynthesis take place )

Aphotic zone is positioned below the littoral and photic zones to bottom of the lake where light levels are too low for photosynthesis.

This deep, unlit region is also known as the profundal zone.

Dissolved Oxygen:

Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air water interface and by the photosynthetic. Average concentration of dissolved oxygen as 10 parts per million by weight.

Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through air-water interface and through respiration of organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplanktons, etc )

The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by temperature.

Other limiting factors which influence on aquatic productivity are

Transparency:

Transparency affects the extent of light penetration.

Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc make the water turbidity. Consequently it limits the extent of light penetration and the photosynthetic activity in a significant way.

Temperature:

The water temperature changes less rapidly than the temperature of air because water has a considerably higher specific heat than air.

Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms have narrow temperature Tolerance limit.