Ecology is  defined “as a scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with each other and with their environment.”

The classical texts of the Vedic period such as the Vedas, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas-Upanishads contain many references to ecological concepts .The Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka- Samhita and the surgical text Susruta-Samhita. contain classification of animals on the basis of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature of soil, climate and vegetation; and description of plants typical to various localities.

Caraka- Samhita contains information where air, land, water and seasons were indispensable  for life and that polluted air and water were injurious for health.

The environment is defined as ‘the sum total of living, non-living components;  influences and events, surrounding an organism.

Components of Environment

1. Abiotic – Energy, Radiation, TEMP, Water, etc.
2. Biotic- plants, animals, man, DECOMPOSER ETC.

Diesel engine exhaust fumes can cause cancer, humans” and it belong to the same potentially deadly category as asbestos, arsenic and ‘mustard gases.

Six main levels of organisation of ecology are:

1. Individual- Organism is an individual living being that has the ability to act or function independently.
2. Population-Population is a group of organisms usually of the same species,

occupying a defined area during a specific time,

3. Community- Communities in most instances are named after the dominant plant form

(species). A community is not fixed or rigid; communities may be large or small.

Types of Community-

On the basis of size and degree of relative independence communities may be divided into two types-

(a)  Major Community

These are large-sized, well organized and relatively independent. They depend

only on the sun’s energy from outside and are independent of the inputs and

outputs from adjacent communities.

E.g: tropical ever green forest in the North-East

 

(b) Minor Communities

These are dependent on neighbouring communities and are often called societies.

They are secondary aggregations within a major community and are not therefore completely independent units as far as energy and nutrient dynamics are concerned.

e.g: A mat of lichen on a cow dung pad.

The environmental factors determine the characteristic of the community as well as the pattern of organisation of the members in the community

The characteristic pattern of the community is  termed as structure which is reflected in the roles played by various population, their range, the  type of area they inhabit, the diversity of species in the community and the spectrum of interactions between them

Eco-System-An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of community of living beings and the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them. It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil, and  people.

When an ecosystem is healthy (i.e. sustainable) it means that all the elements live in balance and are  capable of reproducing themselves

The rapid growth of technology, upgradation of technical innovations and a high rate of obsolescence in the electronics industry have led to one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world which consist of end of life electrical and electronic equipment products. It comprises a whole range of electrical and electronic items such as refrigerators, washing machines, computers and printers, televisions, mobiles, i-pods, etc., many of which contain toxic materials. Many of the trends in consumption and production processes are unsustainable and pose serious challenge to environment and human health.

E-waste is not hazardous if it is stocked in safe storage or recycled by scientific methods or transported from one place to the other in parts or in totality in the formal sector. The e-waste can be considered hazardous if recycled by primitive methods

Major Toxins in E‐waste

• Toxins in e‐waste include polyvinyl chloride (PVC plastics), copper, lead, mercury, arsenic (in  older models), cadmium, manganese, cobalt,  gold, and iron.
• Between 1994 and 2003, disposal of PCs resulted in 718,000 tons of lead, 287 tons of  mercury, and 1,363 tons of cadmium
• Mercury, chromium, lead, and  brominated flame retardants are likely to cause the most adverse health effects in humans.

Survey was carried out by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) during 2005

In India, among top ten cities; Mumbai ranks first in generating e-waste followed by Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur.

 

aggravated because of four developments:

Increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic development, and industrialization

contamination of air by the discharge of harmful substances

 

Major air pollutants and their sources

1. Carbon monoxide (CO)

• It is a colourless, odourless gas that is produced by the incomplete burning of carbon – based fuels including petrol, diesel, and wood.
• It is also produced from the combustion of natural and synthetic products such as cigarettes.
• It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood. It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy.

2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

principle greenhouse gas

3. Chloroflorocarbons (CFC)

• gases that are released mainly fromair-conditioning systems and refrigeration.
• When released into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they come in contact with few other gases, which lead to a reduction of the ozone layer that protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.

 

4. Lead

present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc.

affects children in particular. cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.

 

5. Ozone

• occurs naturally in the upper layers of the atmosphere.
• at-the ground level, it is a pollutant with highly toxic effects.
• Vehicles and industries are the major source of ground-level ozone emissions.
• Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers our resistance to cold and pneumonia.

 

6. Nitrogen oxide (Nox)

• causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal.
• Nitrogen oxide can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in winters.

 

7. Suspended particulate matter (SPM)

• consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust, and vapour that can remain suspended for extended periods
• The finer of these particles when breathed in can lodge in our lungs and cause lung damage and respiratory problems.

 

8. Sulphur dioxide (S02)

• a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in thermal power plants.
• Some industrial processes, such as production of paper and smelting of metals, produce sulphur dioxide.
• a major contributor to smog and acid rain.
• Sulphur dioxide can lead to lung diseases

 

9. Smog

• a combination of the words fog and smoke. Smog is a condition of fog that had soot or smoke in it.
• interaction of sunlight with certain chemicals in the atmosphere.
• primary components of photochemical smog is ozone.
• Ozone is formed through a complex reaction involving hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and sunlight. It is formed when pollutants released from gasoline, diesel- powered vehicles and oil-based solvents react with heat and sunlight from biofuels, the four most serious pollutants are particulates, carbon monoxide, polycyclic organic matter, and formaldehyde

 

Pollutants

1. i) Volatile organic compounds

The main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, furniture polish, glues, air

fresheners, moth repellents, wood preservatives, and other products.

 

1. ii) Biological pollutants

It includes pollen from plants, mite, and hair from pets, fungi, parasites, and some bacteria.

iii) Formaldehyde

Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation foam. It causes irritation to the eyes and nose and allergies.

1. iv) Radon

It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined inside the house and causes lung cancers.

 

Fly Ash

Ash is produced whenever combustion of solid material takes place.

Composition

1. Aluminium silicate (in.large amounts)
2. silicon dioxide (Si02) and
3. Calcium oxide (Ca0).

Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and coppers

 

Policy measures of MoEF:

• The Ministry of Environment and Forests vide its notification in 2009, has made it mandatory to use Fly Ash based products in all construction projects, road embankment works and low lying land filling works within 100 kms radius of Thermal Power Station.
• To use Fly Ash in mine filling activities within 50 kms radius of Thermal Power Stations.
• Arresters: These are used to separate particulate matters from contaminated air.
• Scrubbers: These are used to clean air for both dusts and gases by passing it through a dry or wet packing material.

Government Initiatives

(1) National Air Quality Monitoring Programme

In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been executing a nationwide programme of ambient air quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring

Programme (NAMP).

The National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) is undertaken in India

(i) to determine status and trends of ambient air quality;

(ii) to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS;

(iii) to identify non-attainment cities;

(iv) to understand the natural process of cleaning in the atmosphere; and

(v) to undertake preventive and corrective measures.

Annual average concentration of SOx levels are within the prescribed National Ambient

Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were notified in the year 1982, duly revised in 1994 based on health criteria and land uses .

The NAAQS have been revisited and revised in November 2009 for 12 pollutants, which include. sulphur dioxide (S02), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter having size less than 10 micron

(PM10),particulate matter having size less than 2.5micron (PM2.5), ozone, lead, carbon monoxide (CO), arsenic, nickel, benzene, ammonia, and. Benzopyrene.

 

 

Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where the water table is usually near the water surface and land is covered by shallow water.

Essential as: control floods, water treatment, recharging of water sources, reduce sediments, check soil erosion, bulwark against encroachment by the sea, winter resort for birds and important for flora and fauna. They also provide a variety of resources

Ramsar Convention: mangroves, corals, estuaries, bays, creeks, flood plains, sea Grasses, lakes etc included

A programme on conservation of wetlands was initiated in 1987 with the basic objective of identification of wetlands of national importance, assessment of wetland resources, promotion of R&D activities and formulation and implementation of management action plans

A steering committee in each state headed by the Chief Secretary consists of members from all departments related to the wetland conservation in the state. Successful model.

India is a member of the Standing Committee of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971

Steps forward

Make use of the traditional knowledge of the people living near the wetlands for its conservation along with the engineering solutions

Monitor the impact of implementation of management action plans

Wetlands of India under Ramsar Convention

Name State  Remark

1. Ashtamudi WL Kerala
2. Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa
3. Bhoj WL MP
4. Chilka Lake Orissa            2nd largest in India: 116500 ha
5. Deepor Beel Assam
6. East Calcutta WL WB
7. Harike Lake Punjab
8. Kanjli Punjab
9. Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan
10. Kolleru Lake AP
11. Loktak Lake Manipur
12. Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary TN
13. Pong Dam Lake HP
14. Ropar Punjab
15. Sambhar Lake Rajasthan
16. Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala
17. Tsomoriri J&K
18. Vembanad-Kol WL Kerala            Largest in India: 151250 ha
19. Wular Lake J&K
20. Chandratal HP       2nd Smallest: 49 ha
21. Renuka HP Smallest: 20 ha
22. Rudrasagar Tripura
23. Upper Ganga UP       Total area of these 26 wetlands: 677131 ha
24. Hokarsar (Hokera) J&K     Kerala has the highest area under wetlands
25. Surinsar & Mansar J&K     J&K has the largest number of wetlands (4)
26. Gharana (2010) J&K

 

 

 

 

The Montreux Record. Sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance which are considered to have undergone, to be undergoing, or to be likely to undergo change in their ecological character brought about by human action may be placed on the Montreux Record and may benefit from the application of the Ramsar Advisory Mission and other forms of technical assistance.

Keoladeo national park and Loktak lake from India are included in the list

Changwon Declaration

The primary purpose of the  “Changwon Declaration on human well-being and wetlands”,adopted by Resolution X.3 of the recent meeting of the Conference of the Parties, “is to transmit key messages concerning wetland-related issues to the many stakeholders and decision-makers beyond the Ramsar community who are relevant to the conservation and wise use of wetlands, to inform their actions and decision-making”

 

Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural (or) artificial, permanent (or) temporary with water that is static (or) flowing, fresh, brackish (or) salt, including areas of marine

water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 mtrs.

Wetlands Classification–

1. Inland wetland-

a)Natural- Lakes / Ponds, Ox-bow Lakes, Waterlogged, Swamp/marsh

1. b) Manmade- Reservoirs Tank, Ash pond
2. Costal Wetland-
3. A) Natural- Coral reef, Tidal flat, MANGROVES, Salt marsh, Estuary, Lagoon, Creek,

Backwater, Bay

b)-manmade -• Salt pans, Aquculture

Functions of Wetlands-

• Habitat to aquatic https://exam.pscnotes.com/flora”>Flora and Fauna, birds
• Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water,
• Nutrients recycling, Water purification Floods mitigation,
• Ground water recharging, Buffer shorelines against erosion,
• Genetic reservoir for various species of Plants(rice)
• the National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) considers lakes as standing water
• bodies which have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a water spread of more than ten hectares, and have no or very little aquatic vegetation.
• Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep over most of their area) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have .abundant Growth of aquatic macrophytes

India’s Wetland

Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.

Inland wetlands >Costal Wetlands

 

National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)

• NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.
• Under the programme, 115 wetlands have been identified by the Ministry which require urgent conservation and management interventions.

Aim

• Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further degradation and ensuring their wise
• use for the benefit of local communities and overall conservation of Biodiversity.

Objectives

• to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country.
• to provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive conservation measures in the identified wetlands
• The Central Government is responsible for overall coordination of wetland
• conservation programmes and initiatives at the international and national levels. It also provides guidelines, financial & technical assistance to state govt.
• State Governments/UT Administration are responsible for management of wetlands and implementation of the NWCP for ensuring their wise-use

 

Criteria for Identification of Wetlands of National Importance

Criteria for identification of wetlands of national importance under NWCP are same as those prescribed under the ‘Ramsar Convention On Wetlands‘ and are as given below:

1. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types

example of a natural or near-natural wetland type’ found within the appropriate biogeographic region.

2. Criteria based on species and ecological communities

• If it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species; or
• threatened ecological communities.
• If it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
• If it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

 

3. Specific criteria based on water birds

• If it regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
• If it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a Population of one species or subspecies of waterbirds.

 

4. Specific criteria based on fish

• If it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-HISTORY stages,  species  interactions  and/or  populations  that  are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
• If it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or Migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.

5. Specific criteria based on water/life and culture

• If it is an important source of food and water resource, increased possibilities for recreation  and eco-tourism, improved scenic values, educational opportunities, conservation of cultural heritage (historic or religious sites)

 

The Kyoto Protocol has put in place three flexibility mechanisms to reduce emission of Green House Gases. Although the Protocol places maximum responsibility of reducing emissions on the developed countries by committing them to specific emission targets, the three mechanisms are based on the premise that reduction of emissions in any part of the globe will have the same desired effect on the atmosphere, and also that some developed countries might find it easier and more cost effective to support emissions reductions in other developed or developing countries rather than at home. These mechanisms thus provide flexibility to the Annexure I countries, helping them to meet their emission reduction obligations. Let us take a look at what these mechanisms are.

What are the three flexibility mechanisms put in place of the Kyoto Protocol for reducing GHG emission?

• The three mechanisms are joint implementation. Emissions Trading and Clean Development

What is Joint Implementation?

• Through the Joint Implementation, any Annex I country can invest in emission reduction projects (referred to as joint Implementation Project) in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically.
• Two early examples are change from a wet to a dry process at a Ukraine cement works, reducing energy consumption by 53 percent by 2008-2012; and rehabilitation of a Bulgarian hydropower project, with a 267,000 ton reduction of C02 equivalent during 2008-2012.

What is Clean Development Mechanism?

• The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows-‘l developed country with an emission reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission reduction project in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. In exchange for the amount of reduction In emission thus achieved, the investing gets carbon credits which it can offset against its Kyoto targets. The developing country gains a Step towards sustainable development.
• To get a CDM project registered and implemented, the investing country’ has to first take approval from the designated national authority in the host country, establish “Additionally”, define baselines and get the project validated by a third party agency, called a Designated Operational Entity (DOE). The Executive Body of CDM registers the project and issues credits, called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), or carbon credits, where each unit is equivalent to the reduction of one metric tonne of. C02 or its equivalent. There are more than 4200 CDM projects in the pipeline as on 14.3.2010. The expected CERs till the end of2012 is 2,900,000,000

What is “Additionality” in a CDM project ?

• The feature of “additionality” is a crucial element of a CDM project it means that the industrialized country that is seeking to establish the CDM project in the developing country and earns carbon credits from it has to establish that the planned carbon reductions would not have occurred on its own, in the absence of the CDM project. They have to establish a baseline of the project. Which is the emission level that would have been there in the absence of the project. The difference between this baseline level and the (lower) emission level achieved as a result of the project is the carbon credit due to the investing country

What are some of the concerns regarding CDM ?

• The risk of “false Credits” is a cause for concern with regard to CDM projects. If a project does not actually offer an additionally and the reduction in emission would have happened anyway Even without the project.

 

 

Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes:

 

1. Bioaccumulation

refers to how pollutants enter a food chain. there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain.

 

2. Biomagnification

refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the next.  there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another.

In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active.

If a pollutant is not active biologically, it may biomagnify, but we really don’t worry about it much, since it probably won’t cause any problems Examples : DDT.

 

• An increase in the average temperature of Earth’s near surface air and oceans since the mid-20^thcentury
• 4^thassessment report of IPCC: global temperature increased 74+18 degree C during the 20^thcentury.
• Caused by greenhouse gases
  • Water vapour, Co2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, CFCs (in order of abundance)
• Since the industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has increased the levels of Co2 in the atmosphere from 280 ppm to 390 ppm.

IPCC

• 1988 by World Meteorological Organisation and UNEP
• tasked with reviewing and assessing the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change
• Nobel Prize in 2007
• The IPCC does not carry out its own original research, nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself.
• A main activity of the IPCC is publishing special reports on topics relevant to the implementation of the (UNFCCC)
• Till now, it has released four assessment reports (1990, 1995, 2001, 2007)
• Fifth assessment report is due in 2014

UNFCCC

1992 at the Rio Summit.

194 members. Secretariat at Bonn.

Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:

• Annex I countries – industrialized countries and economies in transition
• Annex II countries – developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries
• Developing countries.

 

Conference	Place	Outcome
1995 COP1	Berlin	The Berlin Mandate
1996 COP2	Geneva
1997 COP3	Kyoto	Kyoto Protocol
1998 COP4	Buenos Aires
1999 COP5	Bonn
2000 COP6 /2001 COP6	The Hague/Bonn	CDM and Joint Implementation adopted at Bonn
2001 COP7	Marrakesh
2002 COP8	New Delhi	Delhi Declaration: Calls for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries
2003 COP9	Milan
2004 COP10	Buenos Aires
2005 COP11/MOP1	Montreal
2006 COP12/MOP2	Nairobi
2007 COP13/MOP3	Bali	Bali Action Plan
2008 COP14/MOP4	Poznan, Poland
2009 COP15/MOP5	Copenhagen
2010 COP16/MOP6	Cancun
2011 COP17/MOP7	Durban, South Africa

 

Tarawa Climate Change Conference

• In the lead up to COP16, the leaders of the world’s most climate-change vulnerable countries met in Kiribati in November 2010
• Ambo Declarationwas adopted
  • It calls for more and immediate action to be undertaken to address the causes and adverse impacts of climate change.

CoP-16/CMP-6, Cancun

COP-16 President: Patricia Espinosa, Mexico’s foreign secretary

COP-17 will be held in Durban

Issues

• Forestry issues and reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) plus
• The developed countries are pushing for transparency from countries where they will fund climate change mitigation.
  • The assessment of carbon emission mitigation for developing countries is right now through domestic communication but is subject to international consultation and analysis. This push for transparency is a major contentious issue.
• Fast-track finance: $ 30 bn had been committed at CoP-15. A large part of this funding is yet to come through.

 

Goals

Agreements Reached

• The outcome of the summit was an agreement, not a binding treaty, which calls on rich countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions as pledged in the Copenhagen Accord, and for developing countries to plan to reduce their emissions, to limit global warming to less than 2 degrees celsius above pre-industrial levels.
• There should be no gap between the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, which expires in December 2012, and the second phase.
• The agreement calls on the developed countries to “raise the level of ambition of the emission reductions to be achieved by them individually or jointly, with a view to reducing their aggregate level of emission of green house gases”
• Allows flexibility in choosing the base year for setting emission reduction targets
• Emissions trading and the project based mechanism under the KP shall continue to be available to Annex 1 parties as a means to meet their quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives.
• The agreements recognize that in all climate change related action,human rights must be respected. They also recognise the need to engage with a broad range of stakeholders, including youth and persons with disability, and call for gender Equality and effective participation of women and indigenous people in effective action on all aspects of climate change.
• The BASIC group softened the three demands it had before the talks began
  • Necessity of a second commitment period to the Kyoto Protocol
  • Need to accelerate disbursement under the fast start finance in the form of new and additional resources through a multilaterally supervised mechanism
  • Continued dialogue on IPRs as part of the technology development and transfer issues.
• REDDis a part of the package and proposed mitigation actions include conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks and sustainable management of forests.
  • REDD is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. Its original objective is to reduce GHGs but it can deliver ‘co-benefits’ such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation
  • REDD+ calls for activities with serious implication directed towards the local communities, indigenous people and forests which relate to reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation. It goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks
• ACancun Adaptation Framework has been proposed to strengthen and address implementation of action, and various kinds of assessments, apart from R&D and host of other issues.
• Green Climate FundThe fund will be designed by a transitional committee, with 15 members from the developed countries and 25 from the developing nations.
• Pledge by the developed countries to provide $100 bn annually till 2020.

 

Conclusion

• UNFCCC secretary-generalChristian Figueres emphasised that the main achievement of the Cancun meet has been to restore some degree of faith in the multilateral process.
• The agreements don’t mention any reduction targets.
• Though the agreements recognize the need to reduce the GHG emissions and curb the increase in global average temperatures below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, in the absence of any firm target, this could be an inadequate and vague provision
• Bolivia has rejected the agreement, saying that it won’t support agreement without binding emission cuts.
• In a sense, the summit was both a major step forward as well as a failure
• It was a step forward because in recent years climate change negotiations had stumbled and this meeting helped overcome that
• It was a failure because it failed to reach an agreement for binding restrictions that are required to avert global warming.
• There was no agreement on how to extend the Kyoto Protocol, or how the $100 billion a year for the Green Climate Fund will be raised or whether developing countries should have binding emissions reductions.

Convention on Biodiversity

• Opened for signature at the Earth Summit in 1992 and entered into force on December 29, 1993
• There are 193 parties. Its secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada.
• US has signed but not ratified the treaty.
• It is an internationallegally-binding treaty with three main goals:
  • conservationof biodiversity
  • sustainable useof biodiversity
  • fair and equitable sharingof the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources
• Its overall objective is to encourage actions which will lead to sustainable future
• CBD covers biodiversityat all levels: ecosystems, species and genetic resources
• It also covers biotechnology through theCartagena Protocol on Biosafety
• Its governing body is the Conference of Parties (COP). They meet every two years
• TheEcosystem Approach, an integrated strategy for the management of resources, is the framework for action under the Convention
• Precautionary principle: it states that where there is threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such threat.
• 2010 is the International Year of Biodiversity.

COP-10 of CBD

• Held at Nagoya, Japan in October 2010.
• It achieved three inter-linked goals
  • Adoption of a new ten year strategic plan to save biodiversity
  • Resource mobilization strategy to increase official development assistance for biodiversity
  • A new international protocol on access to and sharing the benefits from the use of the genetic resources of the planet (Nagoya Protocol)
• Japan Biodiversity Fund was established
• COP-11 will take place in 2012 in India

Nagoya Protocol

• Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from Their Utilization
• The protocol creates a framework that balances access to genetic resources on the basis ofprior informed consent and mutually agreed terms with a fair and equitable sharing
• Expected to enter into force in 2012
• The Strategic Plan of CBD, which aims to arrest biodiversity loss throughout the world by 2020, will be called the Aichi Target. <Aichi is the prefecture in which Nagoya is situated>

Aichi Target

• The Strategic Plan of the CBD or the ‘Aichi Target’ adopted by the meeting include 20 headline targets, organised under five strategic goals that address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss, reduce the pressures on biodiversity, safeguard biodiversity at all levels, enhance the benefits provided by biodiversity, and provide for capacity building.
• The Aichi target will be the overarching framework on biodiversity not only for the biodiversity-related conventions, but for the entire UN system.
• Some targets
  • 17 pc inland and 10 pc marine ecosystem
  • Conserving coral reefs
  • Restore 15 pc of degraded areas
  • Halve or bring to zero the rate of loss of natural habitats including forests
• Target is that by 2020, at least 17 pc of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 pc of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem are conserved
• The conservation is to be done through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systemsof protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes.

 

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol has put in place three flexibility mechanisms to reduce emission of Green House Gases. Although the Protocol places maximum responsibility of reducing emissions on the developed countries by committing them to specific emission targets, the three mechanisms are based on the premise that reduction of emissions in any part of the globe will have the same desired effect on the atmosphere, and also that some developed countries might find it easier and more cost effective to support emissions reductions in other developed or dev

developing countries rather than at home. These mechanisms thus provide flexibility to the Annexure I countries, helping them to meet their emission reduction obligations. Let us take a look at what these mechanisms are.

What are the three flexibility mechanisms put in place of the Kyoto Protocol for reducing GHG emission?

• The three mechanisms are joint implementation. Emissions Trading and Clean Development

What is Joint Implementation?

• Through the Joint Implementation, any Annex I country can invest in emission reduction projects (referred to as joint Implementation Project) in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically.
• Two early examples are change from a wet to a dry process at a Ukraine cement works, reducing energy consumption by 53 percent by 2008-2012; and rehabilitation of a Bulgarian hydropower project, with a 267,000 ton reduction of C02 equivalent during 2008-2012.

What is Clean Development Mechanism?

• The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows-‘l developed country with an emission reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission reduction project in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. In exchange for the amount of reduction In emission thus achieved, the investing gets carbon credits which it can offset against its Kyoto targets. The developing country gains a Step towards sustainable development.
• To get a CDM project registered and implemented, the investing country’ has to first take approval from the designated national authority in the host country, establish “Additionally”, define baselines and get the project validated by a third party agency, called a Designated Operational Entity (DOE).The Executive Body of CDM registers the project and issues credits, called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), or carbon credits, where each unit is equivalent to the reduction of one metric tonne of. C02 or its equivalent. There are more than 4200 CDM projects in the pipeline as on 14.3.2010. The expected CERs till the end of2012 is 2,900,000,000

What is “Additionality” in a CDM project ?

• The feature of “additionality” is a crucial element of a CDM project it means that the industrialized country that is seeking to establish the CDM project in the developing country and earns carbon credits from it has to establish that the planned carbon reductions would not have occurred on its own, in the absence of the CDM project. They have to establish a baseline of the project. Which is the emission level that would have been there in the absence of the project. The difference between this baseline level and the (lower) emission level achieved as a result of the project is the carbon credit due to the investing country

What are some of the concerns regarding CDM ?

• The risk of “false Credits” is a cause for concern with regard to CDM projects. If a project does not actually offer an additionally and the reduction in emission would have happened anyway Even without the project.

CoP15 (Copenhagen Summit)

• Main aim was to establish a global climate agreement for the period from 2012 when the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol expires
• The conference did not achieve any binding agreement for long term action
• A ‘political accord’ was negotiated by approximately 25 parties
  • Collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources , including forestry and investments through international institutions to a tune of $30 bn for the period 2010-12.
• Copenhagen Accord
  • Not legally binding and does not commit countries to agree to a binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol
  • Annex 1 parties would commit to economy-wide emissions targets for 2020 to be submitted by 31 Jan 2010. Delivery of reductions and finance by developed countries will be measured , reported and verified (MRV) in accordance with COP guidelines
  • Non-annex 1 countries would implement Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions to slow their carbon emissions
  • Commits $30 bn for 2010-12
  • Copenhagen Green Climate Fund
  • The accord shall be assessed in 2015

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)

 

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. Its original objective is to reduce green house gases but it can deliver “co-benefits” such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation.

REDD+ is being criticised by indigenous people and activists because it is designed to give more control over indigenous people’s forests to state forest departments, miners, companies etc resulting in violation of rights, loss of livelihoods etc.

REDD is presented as an “offset” scheme of the carbon markets and thus, will produce carbon credits. Forest degradation accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas emissions, about the same as transportation sector. Mitigation cannot be achieved without the inclusion of forests in an international regime. Hence, it is expected to play a crucial role in a future successor agreement to Kyoto Protocol.