Scarcity of water

 

Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatest challenge on account of its increased demand coupled with shrinking supplies due to over utilisation and pollution. Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per cent of the total water. In fact, a very small proportion of fresh water is effectively available for human use. The availability of fresh water varies over space and time.

According to the United Nation Developement Program ,occurrence of water availability at about 1000 cubic meters per capita per annum is a commonly threshold for water indicating scarcity.

Krishna, Cauvery, Subernarekha, Pennar, Mahi, Sabarmati, Tapi, East Flowing Rivers and West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni are some of the basins, which fall below the 1000 cubic meter mark- out of which Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati and East Flowing rivers and West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni facing more acute water scarcity with per capita availability of water less than or around 500 cu m.

The need of the hour to change the condition of water scarity are as follows:-

• The need to change https://exam.pscnotes.com/cropping”>Cropping patterns based on scientific advice,
• use of drip and Irrigation“>Sprinkler Irrigation,
• Fertigation for increasing water use efficiency,
• community participation, especially Women, for better water management
• Use of treated urban waste water to be used for farming in the adjoining areas
• desilting of rivers
• recharging of rivers,
• check Dams and other water storage mechanisms.

Rain Water Harvesting

 

Rain water harvesting generally means collection of rain water. Its special meaning is a technique of recharging of underground water. In this technique water is made to go underground after collecting rain water locally, without polluting the same.

Rain water harvesting is a low cost and eco-friendly technique for preserving every drop of water by guiding the rain water to bore well, pits and wells. Rainwater harvesting increases water availability, checks the declining ground water table, improves the quality of groundwater through dilution of contaminants like fluoride and nitrates, prevents Soil erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge aquifers.

Rainwater is relatively clean and the quality is usually acceptable for many purposes with little or even no treatment. The physical and chemical properties of rainwater are usually superior to sources of groundwater that may have been subjected to contamination. Rainwater harvesting can co‐exist with and provide a good supplement to other water sources and utility systems, thus relieving pressure on other water sources. Rainwater harvesting provides a water supply buffer for use in times of emergency or breakdown of the public water supply systems, particularly during natural disasters.

Watershed Management

 

The term watershed refers to a “contiguous area draining into a single water body or a water course” or “it is a topographical area having a common drainage”. This means that the rainwater falling on an area coming within a ridgeline can be harvested and will flow out of this area thorough single point. Some refer it as a catchment area or river basin.

Watershed management is an efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater Resources. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However, in broad sense watershed management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources – natural (like land, water, Plants and animals) and human with in a watershed.

Integrated Watershed Management Programme  is to restore the ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing degraded Natural Resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water.  The outcomes are  prevention of soil run-off, regeneration of natural vegetation, rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table.  This enables  multi-cropping and the introduction of diverse agro-based activities, which help to provide sustainable livelihoods to the people residing in the watershed area.

The main benefits of watershed management are:-

1. Supply of water for drinking and irrigation.
   2. Increase in bio-diversity.
   3. Loss of acidity in the soil and free for standing water.
   4. Increase in the agricultural production and productivity.
   5. Decrease in the cutting of forests.
   6. Increase in the standard of living.
   7. Increase in EMPLOYMENT.
   8. Increase in personal get together by participation of local people.

Ground water management.

 

Scientific management of ground Water Resources involves a combination of

1. A) Supply side measures aimed at increasing extraction of ground water depending on its availability and
2. B) Demand side measures aimed at controlling, protecting and conserving available resources.

The rainfall occurrence in different parts of India is limited to a period ranging from about 10 to 100 days. The natural recharge to ground water reservoir is restricted to this period only and is not enough to keep pace with the excessive continued exploitation. Since large volumes of rainfall flows out into the sea or get evaporated, artificial recharge has been advocated to supplement the natural recharge.

Ground Water Resources Management requires to focus attention on the judicious utilization of the resources for ensuring their long-term sustainability. Ownership of ground water, need-based allocation pricing of resources, involvement of stake holders in various aspects of planning, execution and monitoring of projects and effective implementation of regulatory measures wherever necessary are the important considerations with regard to demand side ground water management.

 

Limestone	M.P, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
Dolomite	Orissa (Birmitrapur in Sundergarh District-largest in India), M.P & Chattisgarh
Phosphate	Rajasthan (Udaipur) Uttaranchal (Dehradun), M.P. (Jhabua), U.P. (Lalitpur)
Kaolin	Kerala is largest producer.
Mica	Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand (Kodarma-Large) & Rajasthan
Gypsum	Rajasthan & J & K.
Steatite	Rajasthan. It is also called soapstone/ Potstone.
Magnesite	Tamil Nadu

		Pyrite		Bihar is sole producer
		Graphite		Orissa, Rajasthan
		Diamond		M.P. (Panna)
		Beryllium		Rajathan, Jharkhand
		Salt (NaCl)		Gujarat (60%), Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra
		Marble		Rajasthan
		Zircon		Beach Sand of Kerala
		Kyanite		Singhbum distict in Jharkhand-largest. Used as refractory material
		Antimony		Punjab
		Asbestos		Karnataka & Rajasthan
		Beryllium		Rajasthan
		Sulphur		Tamil Nadu
		Tin		Bihar, Jharkhand

 

 

50.	Iron Ore	Chhattisgarh 24 %	Dalli, Rajhra (Durg), Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri
51.		Goa (21%)	Sanquelim, Sanguem, Quepem, Satari, Ponda, Bicholim
52.		Karnataka (20%)	Bellary, Hospet, Sandur
53.		Jharkhand (17 %)	Noamund, Gua
54.		Orissa (15 %)	Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj),
			Kiriburu, Meghahataburu, Bonai (Sundargarh).
55.		Maharashtra	Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, Bhandara
56.		Andhra Pr.	Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnod, Cuddapah, Anantpur di

 

57.		https://exam.pscnotes.com/tamil”>Tamil Nadu	Tirthmalai, Yadapalli, Killimalai, kanjamalai, & Gondumalai
58.	Copper	M. P (46%)	Balghat (Malanjkhand)
59.		Rajasthan (33%)	Khetri (Jhunjhunu & Alwar)
60.		Jharkhand (21%)	Singhbum
61.	Manganese	Karnataka (38%)	Bellary, North Kanara, Shimoga
62.		Orissa (17%)	Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir
63.		M.P. (10 %)	Balghat
64.		Maharashtra (8%)	Nagpur & Bhandara
65.	Bauxite	Orissa (44 %)	Koraput, Kalahandi, Sundargarh
66.		Jharkhand (18 %)	Gumla, Lohardaga, Ranchi, Palamau
67.		Maharashtra (13%)	Kolhapur, Ratnagir
68.		Chhattisgarh(11%)	Bastar, Bilaspur, Surguja district
69.		M.P. (11 %)	Mandla, Satna, Jabalpur, Shahdol
70.		Gujarat (8 %)	Jamnagar, Kachchh, Junagarh
71.		Tamil Nadu (4 %)	Salem, Nilgiri
72.	Chromite	Orissa (97 %)	Sukinda, Kendujhar, Dhenkanal ditricts
73.		Karnataka (2.3 %)	Hassan
74.		Maharashtra (%)	Chandrapur
75.		Jharkhand (%)	Purbi & Paschmi Singhbum district
76.		Andhra Pr (%)	Khammam
77.	Lead	Rajasthan (80 %)	Zawar region (Udaipur), Dariba, Rajura
78.		Orissa (11%)
79.		Andhra Pr (8 %)
80.	Zinc	Rajasthan (99 %)	Zawar –a. Pipli khan to Barla khan b. Mochia, Magra, Balaria
81.		Sikkim
82.	Gold	Karnataka (67 %)	Kolar, Hutti gold fields (Raichur), Gulbarga
83.		Jharkhand (26 %)	Subarnarekha, Sona, Sanjai, South koel, Garra rivers
84.		Andhra Pr (7 %)	Ramgiri Gold Fields (Anantapur district)
85.	Silver	Andhra Pr (42 %)
86.		Bihar Jharkhand32
87.		Rajashtan (25 %)	Zawar
88.		Karnataka
89.	Nickel	Orissa	Cuttack, Kyonjhar, & Maiyurbhanj

 

 

 

 

 

 

		Non Minerals“>Metallic Minerals
1.	Limestone	M.P, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
2.	Dolomite	Orissa (Birmitrapur in Sundergarh District-largest in India), M.P & Chattisgarh
3.	Phosphate	Rajasthan (Udaipur) Uttaranchal (Dehradun), M.P. (Jhabua), U.P. (Lalitpur)
4.	Kaolin	Kerala is largest producer.
5.	Mica	Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand (Kodarma-Large) & Rajasthan
6.	Gypsum	Rajasthan & J & K.
7.	Steatite	Rajasthan. It is also called soapstone/ Potstone.
8.	Magnesite	Tamil Nadu

 

	9.		Pyrite		Bihar is sole producer
	10.		Graphite		Orissa, Rajasthan
	11.		Diamond		M.P. (Panna)
	12.		Beryllium		Rajathan, Jharkhand
	13.		Salt (NaCl)		Gujarat (60%), Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra
	14.		Marble		Rajasthan
	15.		Zircon		Beach Sand of Kerala
	16.		Kyanite		Singhbum distict in Jharkhand-largest. Used as refractory material
	17.		Antimony		Punjab
	18.		Asbestos		Karnataka & Rajasthan
	19.		Beryllium		Rajasthan
	20.		Sulphur		Tamil Nadu
	21.		Tin		Bihar, Jharkhand

 
The definition of function varies across the disciplines. In political science it refers to duties, in mathematics it means the relationship between two variables and in Geography it is synonymous to occupation.

Geographers have classified towns on the basis of their site, situation, size, rank, location and relative elevation. Functional Classification of towns attempts to categorize towns and cities according to their economic functions, thereby identifying their roles within urban systems. Most classifications use EMPLOYMENT and occupational data. In the functional classification approach, towns are classified on the basis of their dominant function. The functional classification of towns has been illus­trated in the following paras:

1.)Administrative town

The main function of administrative cities and towns is to administer the country/state or a specific territory.It includes not only the capital cities of countries, but all the centres of provinces, states, districts and other administrative divisions of the country.

2.Defensive Towns:

During the medieval period, most of the towns and cities used to be developed on the defensive sites.Forts and garrisons used to be constructed at strategic places. The defensive towns have barracks, cantonments, and training facilities for the armed forces, airfields, and harbours for warships.Visakhapatnam, MHOW and Khadakwasla (India);

In many garrison and defensive towns, there is a clear division of land use between the civil and military authorities, so that the military installa­tions are often at a little distance from the town or are grouped together in one part of the town. This is necessary to maintain security, though often many town people are employed by the military.

3.Cultural Centres:

There are numerous towns and cities in the world, almost in each of the countries, which perform cultural functions.The cities of Oxford and Cambridge in England are the most suitable examples of educational towns. In these towns, one may find colleges, libraries, hostels, churches, playgrounds, parks and shopping centres. The environmental pollution in these towns is almost insignificant.

4.) Collection Centres:

The mining towns, fishing https://exam.pscnotes.com/ports”>Ports and lumbering centres fall under the category of collection centres/towns. There are numerous metallic, non-metallics, precious stones and energy Resources which are obtained from mines.The towns which serve these mines may be small settlements serving a particular mine such as Zawar near Udaipur (Rajasthan), Bjiladela (Madhya Pradesh) and Digboi (Assam).They may be large in size such as Raniganj, Hazaribagh (Bihar), Ipoh in the tin rich Kinta valley of Malaysia, or Kuwait and Abadan in the oil producing regions of Kuwait and Tehran, respectively.Such towns may have some industries related to the mineral mines, such as smelters and refineries. The shops in such towns sell mining equipments and special clothes needed for miners.

5.) Production Centres:

Urban places, town and cities in which some kind of manufacturing Industry is the major function is known as a production centre. The size and appearance of the town are affected by the type of industry located there.

• For example, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Durgapur, Dhanbad and Bhadravati in India, Pittsburgh in USA, Magnitogorsk in Russia and Birmingham in UK are dominated by large steel Plants. Such iron and steel producing towns are generally located near the coal fields.
• For the manufacturing towns, as collecting centres, transportation is very important for the transport of raw materials and the finished goods. These days such towns are generally set up on lines of Communication.

In manufacturing towns, there is a segregation of houses and estab­lishments; the officer’s quarters may be grouped at one place and that of the labourers at the other.

6.) Towns of Diversified Functions:

As stated at the outset, towns are classified according to their major functions. So, all those towns (such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc.) can be put into a definite category in which a large number of activities are conducted. Such towns are referred as diversified in functions.

Over space and time, the functions of towns change. For example, defensive sites often become restrictive when the town expands.Thus, many towns have restricted centres which were once confined within the town walls and more extensive suburbs which grew up outside the walls or after the walls were demolished.

Shahjahanabad (old Delhi), Padova (Italy), Lahore and Rawalpindi (Pakistan), Baghdad (Iraq) and Baku (Azerbaijan) are some of the examples of such towns.

7.)Residential Towns:

In some towns, the chief function is simply to house a concentration of Population. In such areas, most of the land is devoted to houses, parks and hospitals. These towns are very- well-connected with the major cities, which enables the commuters to get to work each day.

8.  Resorts:

The urban places which cater to the recreation needs of people are known as resorts or recreation towns.These urban places may be based on Health-giving water (hot springs), seaside recreation, mountain climbing, cultural attractions, historical monuments, Sports facilities, national parks and attractive scenery.Resorts and recreational towns have many hotels to accommodate visitors, and also provide sporting facilities such as golf courses, swimming pools, trekking and skiing. Moreover, they have numerous entertainment facilities, such as theatres, cinemas, and night clubs and children parks.

9. Transfer and Distribution Centres:

The main functions performed at transfer centres are the trade, commerce and Services. Towns which are concerned with the transfer and distribution of goods, however, have trade as their major function.

They include several types of towns. For example, market towns, sea ports and financial towns.Market towns are characterized by markets, a wide range of shops, stores, warehouses, godowns, cold storages and wholesale .markets.Market towns also have banks, Insurance companies and other financial organizations. Kanpur, Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Indore, Bhopal, Patna, Lucknow, Ludhiana and Hapur in India, Norwich in England, Alexandria in Egypt, and Kumasi in Ghana are some of the examples of such towns.

 

Problem of Human settlement:

Some of the major problems of Urbanisation in India are

1. Urban Sprawl

Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in population and geographical area, of rapidly growing cities is the root cause of urban problems. In most cities the economic base is incapable of dealing with the problems created by their excessive size

1. Overcrowding

Overcrowding is a situation in which too many people live in too little space. Overcrowding is a logical consequence of over-population in urban areas. It is naturally expected that cities having a large size of population squeezed in a small space must suffer from overcrowding. This is well exhibited by almost all the big cities of India.

 

3.Slums and Squatter Settlements:

The natural sequel of unchecked, unplanned and haphazard Growth of urban areas is the growth and spread of slums and squatter settlements which present a striking feature in the ecological structure of Indian cities, especially of metropolitan centres.

 

4.)Overcrowding

Overcrowding leads to a chronic problem of shortage of houses in urban areas. This problem is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of unemployed or underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter cities/towns from the surrounding areas.

5.)Seweage problem

Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and inefficient sewage facilities. Not a single city in India is fully sewered. Resource crunch faced by the municipalities and unauthorised growth of the cities are two major causes of this pathetic state of affairs.

 

Mineral is a naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline structure, color, and hardness

Minerals are valuable https://exam.pscnotes.com/natural-Resources“>Natural Resources that are finite and non-renewable. The HISTORY of mineral extraction in India dates back to the days of the Harappan civilization. The wide availability of minerals in the form of abundant rich reserves and the ecogeological conditions make it very conducive for the Growth and development of the mining sector in India.  India  is particularly rich in the Metallic Minerals of the ferrous group such as iron ores, manganese, chromite and titanium. It has the world’s largest reserves in mica and bauxite.

Minerals are a valuable natural resource being the vital raw material for Infrastructure, Capital Goods and basic industries. As a major resource for development the extraction and management of minerals has to be integrated into the overall strategy of the country’s Economic Development. The exploitation of minerals has to be guided by longterm national goals and perspectives. Just as these goals and perspectives are dynamic and responsive to the changing global economic scenario so also the national mineral policy has to be dynamic taking into consideration the changing needs of Industry in the context of the domestic and global economic Environment.

Minerals are broadly divided into two groups metallic and non metallic minerals. Metallic minerals are further subdivided into ferrous and non ferrous minerals.

Metallic minerals are minerals which contain one or more metallic Elements.Metallic minerals occur in rare, naturally formed concentrations known as mineral deposits. These deposits can consist of a variety of metallic minerals containing valuable metals such as nickel (pentlandite), copper (chalcopyrite), zinc (sphalerite), lead (galena) and gold (occurs as a native element or as a minor constituent within other minerals) that are used in all aspects of our daily lives.Metallic minerals must be broken apart and chemically processed to extract the useful Metal from the mineral.

Ferrous minerals account for about three-fourth of the total value of the production of metallic minerals. They constitute the most important mineral group after fuel minerals. They include iron, manganese, chromite, pyrite etc. These minerals provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries, particularly iron, steel and alloys.

Iron Ore

 

The two main types of ore found in our country are haematite and magnetite. It has great demand in international market due to its superior quality. The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to the coal fields in the north-eastern plateau region of the country which adds to their advantage. Major iron ore deposits in India, distributed in five zones designated as Zone – I to Zone-V, have been identified in the country on commercial ground.

Most of iron ore found in the country is of three types:- Haematite, magnetite and limonite.
Haematite ore contains up to 68 percent of iron. It is red in color and is often refered to as ‘red ore*. Next to haematite in quanitity and richness is the magnetite ore. It contains up to 60 percent of the iron. It is dark brown to blackish in colour, and is often referred as ‘black ores’, Limonite is the third type of ore which has iron content of 35-50 percent.

• Zone-I group of iron ore deposits occur on the Bonai Iron Ore Ranges of Jharkhand and Orissa States and in the adjoining areas in Eastern India,
• Zone-II group comprises iron ore in Karnataka , Maharashtra , Orissa , Manipur Tamil Nadu , Geology and Mineral Resources of India ore deposits in the 225-km.-long north-south-trending linear belt in central India comprising the States of Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra (East).
• Zone – III deposits occur in Bellary-Hospet regions of Karnataka while the
• Zone – IV deposits cover the rich magnetitic deposits of Bababudan-Kudremukh area of the same State in south India.
• Zone – V deposits cover iron ore deposits of Goa. In addition, in south India, magnetite-rich banded magnetite quartzites occur in parts of Andhra Pradesh near the East Coast while in Tamil Nadu good deposits of magnetite occur in Salem district and in neighbouring areas.

Copper

 

Copper is malleable, ductile and a good conductor, copper and thus is  mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.

The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum district of Jharkhand are leading producers of copper.Largest resources of copper ore to a tune of 809 million tonnes (53.54%) are in the state of Rajasthan followed by Madhya Pradesh with 287.67 million tonnes (19%) and Jharkhand with 295.96 million tonnes (19.59%). Copper resources in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal accounted for remaining 7.87% of the total all India resources.

 

Bauxite

 

Bauxite is a non-ferrous metallic mineral. It is the ore from which aluminium metal is produced. Aluminium extracted from the ore is used in making aeroplanes, electrical appliances and goods, household fittings, utensils etc. Bauxite is also used for manufacturing of white colour cement and certain chemicals. India’s reserves of bauxite of all grades have been estimated at 3037 million tonnes.

The deposits in AP and Orissa (Eastern Ghats) with a total reserve of about 1650 Mt constitute one of the largest bauxite deposits in the world. Orissa continues to be the leading state accounting for 59% of the total production of the country. is also rich in deposits. It occurs in the high hilltops of the Chhotanagpur plateau as residual deposits. Bauxite occurs as segregated sheets, pockets, patches and lenses within laterite cappings over the traps and gneisses. Extensive deposits of bauxite are found in the western Chhotanagpur plateau area falling in and districts and adjoining district.

Manganese

 

Manganese is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for manufacturing ferro alloys. Karnataka has the largest recoverable reserves (64.55 million tones) of manganese ore in the country. Managanese ore minerals occur in close association with haematite and carbonates as stratiform, lenticular, patchy or pockety deposits of varying dimensions, within various greenstone belts. Andhra Pradesh contributes about 90% of the manganese ore production in the country. The manganese ore here is mainly associated with kodurites of the Khondalite Group in Eastern Ghats and Penganga beds in the Pakhal Basin. Orissa accounts for one third of the country’s annual production of manganese and possesses the second largest recoverable manganese reserve in the country i.e. 50.36 million tonnes of all grades, next to that of Karnataka. Manganese ores are mined in Singhbhum district in between Noamundi and Gua and from south of Chaibasa.

 

Petroleum, natural gas, coal, nitrogen, uranium and water power are examples of conventional sources of energy. They’re also called non-renewable sources of energy and are mainly fossil fuels, except water power.

Rising Growth of Population has created a tremendous pressure on the conventional Resources of energy and thus the concept of https://exam.pscnotes.com/sustainable-development”>Sustainable Development get prominent position.

 

Coal in India occurs in two important types of coal fields. They are the Gondwana coal fields and Tertiary coal fields. Out of the total coal   reserves and production in India, Gondwana coal fields contribute 98% and the rest 2% is produced by tertiary coal fields.

• The Gondwana coal fields are located in the sedimentary rock systems of lower Gondwana Age. They are distributed chiefly in the valleys of the Damodar (Bihar – West Bengal); the Son (Madhya Pradesh); the Mahanadi (Orissa), the Godavari (Andhra Pradesh) and the Wardha (Maharashtra).
• Tetiary coalfields occur in the extra-peninsular areas which include Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Sikkim

 

Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers.

Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter usually occurs above the oil. About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.

 

•  In India, uranium is embedded in the igneous and Metamorphic Rocks in Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Himalayas. It occurs in Igneous Rocks of Bihar, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. A substantial source of uranium deposits is also found in the monazite sands along the Kerala coasts.
• In Jaduguda, Jharkhand uranium occurs associated with hard compact and somewhat mylonitised chlorite-sericite schist and granular metasedimentaries. Indicated Ore reserves at Jaduguda have been estimated at 2.8 Mt with an Average grade of about 0.08% uranium oxide. Uranium is found associated with copper mineralisation in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand and Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh.

Mazor Atomic Minerals are:

1. Uranium
2. Monazite
3. Ilmenite
4. Rutile
5. Zircon

Thorium is principally obtained from monazite. The beach sands of Kerala in Palghat and Quilon district contain the world’s richest monazite deposits. It also occurs on the sands of Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.

 

Development of non-conventional sources of energy is of prime importance for the sustainable and Inclusive Growth in the state. Conventional Energy Resources are depleting at an accelerated rate and non-conventional resources could play a leading role in Energy Security in the state.

Non-Conventional energy resources could minimise the transmission cost and energy divide between the remote locations

• Indian has a unique geographical location in the tropical Climate which enables it with high solar radiation intensity throughout the year.
• Solar radiation which we receive as heat and Light can be converted to useful thermal energy or for production of electricity either through solar photovoltaic route or through solar thermal route.
• Sky is clear with abundant sunlight for about 300 days a year
• Solar insulation is greater than 4-7 kwh per square per metre per day for the nation.
• Solar Energy could be used as heat energy or could be converted into electricity through photovoltic cells
• National Solar Mission

 

 

 

 

 

 

• Wind can be used as a Source Of Energy in those regions where strong and constant winds blow throughout the year. Wind Energy can be used for pumping water for Irrigation and also for generating electricity. India has about 45,000MW estimated wind power potential. Prospective sites for generating electricity wind have been located in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. The potential that can be tapped at present is limited to around 13,000 MW. But at present 2,483MW is generated through wind which places India in the fifth position globally after Germany, USA, Denmark and Spain.

Hydroelectricity is electricity that is made by the movement of water. It is usually made with Dams that block a river to make a reservoir or collect water that is pumped there. When the water is released, the huge pressure behind the dam forces the water down pipes that lead to a turbine.

The rivers originating from the northern mountainous region are the most important source of the generation of Hydroelectricity . They have their sources in Glaciers and snowfields, therefore, they are perennial and their flow of water is regular throughout the year. Velocity of flow is high because of dissected terrain and the competition for use of water for other purposes is low.

The northeastern part of this mountainous region, constituting the Brahmaputra basin, has the largest power generating potential. The Indus basin in the northwest is at second place. The Himalayan tributaries of the Ganga have a potential of 11,000 MW. Thus, three-fourths of the total potential is confined in the river basins originating from the northern mountainous region.

The rivers of peninsular India are comparatively poor in this respect. They depend entirely on the rainfall for their flow, and therefore, their flow is very erratic exceptionally high flow during the monsoon period fol1owed by a long period of lean flow

 

 

Industrial Uses

The share of Industrial Sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5 per cent of the ground-water. Rough estimates indicate that the present water use in the industrial sector is of the order of 15 km3 . The water use by thermal and nuclear power Plants with installed capacities of 40,000 MW and 1500 MW respectively, is estimated to be about 19 km3 . The industries are needed to be switched over to water efficient technologies.

By 2050, India expects to be a major industrial power in the world. https://exam.pscnotes.com/industry”>Industry needs water fresh or recycled. Processing industries depend on abundance of water. It is estimated that 64 cubic km of water will be needed by 2050 A.D. to sustain the industries. Thermal power generation needs water including a small part that is consumptive. Taking into account the electric power scenario in 2050 A.D., energy related requirement (Evaporation and consumptive use) is estimated at 150 cubic km.

With the advent of Globalization and Privatization ,industrial activities water demands share of water is changing rapidly. In addition increase in Population and rapid Urbanisation also put an additional demand on Resources“>Water Resources.

Water treatment plants for all industries emanating polluted water is the need of the hour.

Domestic Uses

The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as compared to groundwater.The National Water Policy has assigned the highest priority for drinking water supply needs followed by Irrigation, hydro-power, Navigation and industrial and other uses.

Million Development Goals target to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to Safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. The indicators of progress towards this target are;

1) proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved drinking water source (urban and rural);

2) proportion of population with access to improved sanitation.

It is estimated that by 2050, water requirements per year for domestic use will be 90 km3 for low demand scenario and 111 km3 for high demand scenario. It is expected that about 70% of urban water requirement and 30% of rural water requirement will be met by surface water sources and the remaining from groundwater.

Irrigation is needed because of spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the country. The large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone. North-western India and Deccan plateau constitute such areas. Winter and summer seasons are more or less dry in most part of the country. Hence, it is difficult to practise Agriculture-notes-for-state-psc-exams”>Agriculture without assured irrigation during dry seasons.

After independence, the Government of India gave high priority to the construction of major irrigation related Infrastructure. At present, India has a capacity to store about 200 billion cubic meters of water, a gross irrigated area of about 90 million hectares 2 and an installed hydro-power capacity of about 30,000 megawatts (World Bank, 2005)

Expansion of Irrigation facilities, along with consolidation of the existing systems, has been the main part of the strategy for increasing production of food grains. With sustained and systematic development of irrigation, the irrigation potential through major, medium and minor irrigation projects has increased from 22.6 million hectares (mha.) in 1951, when the process of planning began in India, to about 98.84 mha. at the end of the year 2004-05.

Three Geological divisions:

1. The peninsular block
2. The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

 

• Peninsualar block is made of gneisses (metamorphic) and granites (igneous).

Six physiographic divisions:

1. The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
2. The Northern Plain
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains
6. The Islands

Northern and North-Eastern Mountains

Approximate length of the Great Himalayan range: 2500 KM. Width: 160-400 KM

Impact of Himalayas on the Climate of India?

It can be divided into five sub-divisions:

1. Kashmir (or Northwestern) Himalayas
2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
3. Darjeeling and https://exam.pscnotes.com/sikkim”>Sikkim Himalayas
4. Arunachal Himalayas
5. Eastern Hills and Mountains

Kashmir Himalayas

• Ranges: Karakoram, Ladhakh, Zaskar, Pir Pinjal
• Glaciers: Baltoro, Siachen
• Passes: Zoji La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Pinjal), Photu La (Zaskar) and Khardung La (Ladakh)
• Lakes: (freshwater) Dal and Wular; (saltwater) Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri
• Pilgrimage: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath cave, Charar-e-Sharif
• They are also famous for Karewa formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran (a local variety of Saffron). Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines.
• Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river.
• Meanders is a typical feature associated with the rivers in this region.
• In South, there are longitudinal valleys called duns; Jammu dun and Pathankot dun

 

Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

• Lies between rivers Ravi and Kali
• Drained by two major river systems: Indus and Ganga
• Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh desert, lies in Spiti.
• Ranges: Great Himalayan Range, Lesser Himalayas (Dhaoladhar in HP and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand), Shivalik range
• Pilgrimage: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and the five famous prayags (Refer to Panch Prayag)
• Famous for hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani; Cantt.: Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet
• The important distinguishing features of this area are the ‘Shivalik’ and ‘Dun formations’.
• Important duns: Chandigarh-Kalka, Nalagarh, Dehra, Harike, Kota
• Dehradun is the largest of all duns: Length – 35-45 KM, Width: 22-25 KM
• Inhabited with the Bhotia They migrate to higher reaches (Bugyals) in summer and return to the valleys during winters.

 

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

• Between Nepal Himalayas and Bhutan Himalayas.
• Fast flowing rivers such as Tista
• Peaks: Kanchenjunga
• Tribe: Lepcha
• Has a mixed Population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
• Importance: Due to the moderate slope, it is best suited for tea plantations. <India produces about 26 pc of tea in the world; second after China. Also, accounts for 12 pc of tea exports; fourth in the world.>
• Duar formations are peculiar to this region.

 

Arunachal Himalayas

• From Bhutan Himalayas to Diphu pass in the east.
• Direction: Southwest to Northeast
• Peaks: Kangtu and Namya Barwa
• Rivers: Brahmaputra, Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit.
• These rivers are perennial and have the highest hydro-electric power potential in the country.
• Tribes: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and Nagas
• These communities practice shifting cultivation known as Jhumming.

 

Eastern Hills and Mountains

• Direction: North to South
• Ranges: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, Mizo or Lushai hills
• These are low hills
• Tribes practice Jhum cultivation
• Rivers: Barak. Most of the Nagaland rivers form a tributary of Brahmaputra. Rivers in eastern Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar.
• Lake: Loktak
• Loktak Lake: is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves as a source for hydropower generation, Irrigation and drinking water supply.
• Keibul Kamjao National Park located in the Bishnupur district of Manipur is the only floating park in the world and is an integral part of the Loktak Lake. Home to the endangered Manipur Eld’s Deer or Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai or Dancing Deer.
• Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.

The Northern Plains

• Formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
• Length: 3200 KM; Width: 150-300 KM

Three main zones:

1. Bhabar
2. Tarai
3. Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bangar)

Bhabar

• Narrow belt. 8-10 KM wide.
• Paralllel to Shivalik at the break-up of the slope. Hence, streams and rivers deposit heavy rocks (and at times disappear) in this zone.

Tarai

• South of Bhabar. 10-20 KM wide.
• Rivers re-emerge and create marshy and swampy conditions known as Tarai.

Alluvial Belt

• South of Tarai.
• Features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional Landforms such as sand bars, meanders, ox-bow lakes and braided channels. Riverine islands in Brahmaputra.
• Brahmaputra takes a turn an almost 90 degree turn at Dhubri (Assam) before entering Bangladesh.

 

Peninsular Plateau

• Bounded by the Delhi ridge, Rajmahal Hills, Gir range and Cardamom hills.
• Made up of a series of patland plateaus: Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore, Karnataka etc.
• One of the oldest and most stable landmass of India.
• Physiographic Features: Tors, Block Mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, hummocky hills and quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
• Black Soil in western and northwestern parts.
• Bhima fault in this region has frequent seismic activity (Lathur earthquake)
• NW part also has ravines and gorges: Chambal, Bhind and Morena.

Three broad regions:

1. Deccan Plateau
2. Central Highlands
3. Northwestern Plateau

Deccan Plateau

• Bordered by Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills
• Important ranges: WG: Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Caradamom hills; EG: Javadi hills, Palconda range, Nallamala Hills, Mahendragiri hills
• EG and WG meet at Nilgiri hills.
• Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 m) on Anaimalai hills; Dodabetta (2637 m) on Nilgiri hills.
• Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.

Central Highlands

• Bounded by the Aravali and Satpura range.
• Relic mountains, highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.
• Near Jaisalmer it is covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.
• Elevation: 700-1000 m
• Banas, a tributary of Chambal, originates in the Aravalli. Other tributaries of Yamuna originate from the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
• Minerals in Chotanagpur plateau.

 

Northeastern Plateau

• Extension of the main Peninsular plateau.
• Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau.
• Megahalaya plateau: Garo hills, Khasi hills and Jaintia hills (named after the tribals inhabiting the region)
• Rich in minerals like coal, iron, sillimanite, limestone and uranium.
• Receives maximum rainfall from SW monsoon. Hence, Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapuni and Myswarnam.

 

Indian Desert

• Aka Marusthali
• Northwest of the Aravali hills
• Dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
• Low rainfall: >150 mm per year Low vegetation cover
• Evidence that this area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era.
• Features: Mushroom Rocks, shifting dunes and oasis.
• Rivers are ephemeral: Luni. Brackish lakes. Inland drainage.

 

Coastal Plains

Two divisions:

1. Western coastal plains
2. Eastern Coastal Plains

Western Coastal Plains

• Submerged coastal plain. Hence, a narrow belt. Narrow in middle and broader towards north and south.
• Ports: Provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours due to submergence. Kandla, Mazagaon (Mumbai), JLN port Navha Sheva, Maramagao, Mangalore, Cochin etc.
• Mumbai has the world’s largest natural harbour.
• May be divided into: Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast, Goan coast and Malabar coast.
• Rivers don’t form delta.
• Kayals (Backwaters): Found in the Malabar coast. Used for fishing and inland Navigation. Every year Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.

 

Eastern Coastal Plains

• Broader
• Emergent coast. Hence, less number of ports and harbours. Chennai, Vizag, Paradwip, Haldia.
• Delta formation

The Islands

Two major Divisions:

1. Andaman and Nicobar
2. Lakshwadeep & Minicoy

 

Andaman and Nicobar

• Two major island groups: Ritchie’s archipelago and the Labrynth island.
• The group is divided into: Andaman in the North and Nicobar in the South.
• Andaman and Nicobar separated by the Ten Degree channel.
• Barren Island
• Peaks: Saddle Peak (N.Andaman – 738 m), Mt. Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mt. Koyob (S Andaman – 460 m) and Mt. Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m)
• Coral deposits found
• Convectional rainfalls and equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep and Minicoy

• Entire group built of coral deposits.
• Total of 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
• Smallest UT
• Minicoy is the largest island
• Separated by the 9 Degree Channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south Canannore island.
• These islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.

 

 

Types of Soil

1.

Alluvial Soils

22

Most fertile, Sandy loam in texture,

Rich in Potash, Phosphoric Acid, Lime & Organic matter

Deficient in Nitrogen & Humus

2.

Regur/Black Soils

30

Also classified as Chernozem. Clay content 50%

Rich in iron, lime & Aluminium

Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus & organic content

3.

Red & Yellow Soils

28

Known as omnibus group.

Rich in oxides of iron

Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus & Humus

4.

Laterite Soils

2.62

Not very fertile. Typical of tropical region with heavy rainfall

Rich in iron oxide & potash

Poor in nitrogen, phosphate & calcium

5.

Arid Soils

6.13

Rich in phosphate

Poor in Nitrogen & humus

6.

Saline Soils

1.29

Known as Usara, Reh or Kallar

Contain a large proportion of Sodium, Potassium & Magnesium

Poor in Nitrogen & Calcium

7.

Peaty & Organic

2.17

Normally heavy & black in colour. Highly acidic.

Rich in organic matter

Poor in phosphate & potash

8.

Forest Soils

7.94

Acidic with low humus content

Poor in potash, phosphorus & lime

Sobriquets

1.

Bolton of the east

Ahmedabad

2.

Manchester of South India

Coimbatore

3.

Granary of South India

Thanjavur

 

 

 

 

 

							National Parks of India
	1.				Wandur National Park				Andaman & Nicobar
	2.				Kaziranga National Park				Assam
	3.				Manas National Park				Assam
	4.				Palamau National Park				Jharkhand
	5.				Hazaribagh National Park				Jharkhand (Rhinoceros)
	6.				Dachigam National Park				J & K – Kashmir Stag (Hangul)
	7.				Hemis National Park				J & K
	8.				Kishtwar National Park				J & K
	9.				Silent Valley National Park				Kerala
	10.				Eravikulam National Park				Kerala
	11.				Bandhavgarh National Park				M.P.
	12.				Kanha National Park				M.P.
	13.				Madhav National Park				M.P.
	14.				Pench National Park				M.P.
	15.				Shivpuri National Park				M.P. – Birds
	16.				Indravati National Park				Chhattisgarh
	17.				Keoladeo National Park				Rajasthan
	18.				Ranthambore National Park				Rajasthan
	19.				Desert National Park				Rajasthan
	20.				Sariska National Park				Rajasthan
	21.				Namdapha National Park				Arunachal Pradesh
	22.				Marine National Park				Gujarat
	23.				Pin Valley National Park				Himachal Pradesh

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

24.	Bandipur National Park	Karnataka
25.	Nagarhole National Park	Karnataka
26.	Bannerghatta National Park	Karnataka
27.	Tadoba National Park	Maharashtra
28.	Boriveli National Park	Maharashtra (or Sanjay Gandhi National Park)
29.	Balpakram National Park	Meghalaya
30.	Nokrek National Park	Meghalaya
31.	Nandan Kanan National Park	Orissa
32.	Chandka Elephant Reserve	Orissa
33.	Simlipal Tiger Reserve	Orissa
34.	Corbett National Park	Uttaranchal
35.	Rajaji National Park	Uttaranchal
36.	Valley of Flower N. Park	Uttaranchal
37.	Nandadevi National Park	Uttaranchal
38.	Dudhwa National Park	U.P.
39.	Govind National Park	U.P.

 

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

1.	Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary	Andhra Pradesh
2.	Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu
3.	Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary	Andhra Pradesh
4.	Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary	Assam
5.	Kaimur wildlife Sanctuary	Bihar (largest)
6.	Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary	Karnataka
7.	Periyar Wildlife sanctuary	Kerala
8.	National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary	M.P., U.P & Rajasthan
9.	Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary	Maharashtra (Ahmednagar)
10.	Gomardha Wildlife Sanctuary	Chhattisgarh
11.	Harike Headworks	Punjab
12.	Jaldapara Wildlife sanctuary	West Bengal
13.	Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary	Haryana
14.	Raganathittu Wildlife Sanctuary	Karnataka
15.	Madumalai Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu
16.	Pulicat Sanctuary	Andhra Pradesh
17.	Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary	U.P (Varanasi)
18.	Ranganthitoo Bird Sanctury	Karnataka
19.	Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu

 

 

		Breeds of Cattle
1.	Cow	Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Deoni (Andhra Pr.), Nagori, Rathi, Siri, Malvi,
		Tharparkar. Exotic breeds – Holstein, Friesian, Jersey, Brown Swiss.
2.	Buffalo	Murrah, Bhadawari, Nagpuri, Mehsana, Jaffrabadi, Surti, Nali-Ravi.
3.	Sheep	Jaisalmeri, Pugal, Bikaneri, Marwari, Kathiawari.
4.	Goats	Jamnapuri, Barbari

 

High Yielding Varieties of Seed

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.	Wheat	Kalyan Sona, Sonalika, Arjun, Lerma, Sharbati Sonora, WL series.
2.	Rice	Padma, Jaya, IR-8, Hamsa, Krishna, Cauvery, Annapurna
3.	Maize	Ganga-101, Deccan Hybrid
4.	Jowar	CSV-1 to CSV-7
5.	Ragi	Sharda
6.	Cotton	V-797, Hybrid 4,5, Digvijay, Varalaxmi, Sanjay, Deviraj, Virnar.

 

Roads, Railways & Waterways in India

1.	National Highways	67700 Km	Broad Guage	46800 km
2.	State Highways	137000 Km	Meter Guage	13000 km
3.	District Roads	12 Lakh Km	Narrow Guage	3100 km
4.	Village Roads	15 Lakh Km	Total RAILWAY guage	63200 km
5.	Border Roads	30,000 Km	No of Trains	13500
6.	Total Roads	33 Lakh Km	No of Stations	7100
7.	Total Waterways	14500 Km	Electrified route	28%

 

National Waterways

1.	National Waterways-1	Allahabad-Haldia stretch of the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hoogly system
2.	National Waterways-2	Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra system
3.	National Waterways-3	The west coast canal from Kottapuram to Kollam along with the
		Udyogmandal & Champakar canals (All in Kerala).

 

			Indian Railways, Headquarters
		1.	Nothern Raiway	Delhi
		2.	Southern Railway	Chennai
		3.	Eastern Raiway	Kolkata
		4.	Western Railway	Mumbai (Churchgate)
		5.	North-Western Railway	Jaipur
		6.	North-Central Railway	Allahabad
		7.	North-Eastern Railway	Gorakhpur
		8.	North-East Frontier Railway	Guwahati
		9.	East Coast Railway	Bhubaneshwar
		10.	East Central Railway	Hazipur
		11.	West Central Railway	Jabalpur
		12.	Central Railway	Mumbai (V.T)
		13.	South-Central Railway	Secundarabad
		14.	South Eastern Railway	Kolkata
		15.	South-Western Railway	Bangalore
		16.	South-East Central Railway	Bilaspur
			India Pipelines
1.	Naharkatiya Oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar via Noonmati – First pipeline
2.	Barauni-Kanpur pipeline for transport of refined petroleum
3.	Haldia-Maurgram-Rajbandh pipeline
4.	Ankleshwar oilfield to Koyali refinery in Gujarat
5.	Mumbai High Koyali pipeline
6.	Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline (1750 km). Extended from Bijapur to Dadri in U.P.

 

 

 

 

 

	7.				Kandla to Luni in U.P via Delhi for LPG transport (1250 Km)
							Airways-Internatioanal Airports
		1.			Mumbai		Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport (Sahar)
		2.			Delhi		Indira Gandhi International Airport
		3.			Chennai		Anna International Airport (Meenambakam)
		4.			Kolkata		Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport
		5.			Ahmedabad		Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport
		6.			Amritsar		Raja Sansi Airport
		7.			Bangalore		Needumbassery International Airport
		8.			Goa		Dabolim International Airport
		9.			Guwahati		Lokapriya Gopinat Bardoli International Airport
		10.			Hyderabad		Rajiv Gandhi International Airport
		11.			Thiruvananthapuram		Trivandrum International Airport
		12.			Kochi		Nedumbassery International Airport.
							India’s Foreign Trade
			1.		Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants (POL)			27 %	1.	Gems & Jewellery		17 %
			2.		Pearls & Precious stones			9 %	2.	Readymade Garments		13 %
			3.		Gold & Silver			8.5 %	3.	Chemicals		11 %
			4.		Capital Goods			12 %	4.	Cotton Textile		8 %
			5.		Electronic goods			9 %	5.	Machine & Transport		6 %
			6.		Chemicals			7 %	6.	Agricultural Exports		13.5 %
			7.		Edible Oils			3 %	7.
			8.		Coke, Coal & briquettes			2 %	8.

Fish & Fish products lead agricultural exports accounting for 3.1 % of the total value.

India’s major trading partners

1.	USA	11.6 %
2.	UAE	5.0 %
3.	China	5 .0%
4.	UK	4.4 %
5.	Belgium	4.1 %
6.	Germany	3.9 %
7.	Japan	3.1 %
8.	Switzerland	2.7 %
9.	Hongkong	3.4 %
10.	Singapore	3.0 %

 

 

Cities located on Rivers

City	River	State
Agra	Yamuna	UP
Badrinath	Alaknanda	Uttranchal
Cuttack	Mahanadi	Orissa
Dibrugarh	Brahmaputra	Assam
Ferozpur	Sutlej	Punjab

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Guwahati	Brahmaputra	Assam
Hyderabad	Musi	AP
Jabalpur	Narmada	MP
Kanpur	Ganga	UP
Kota	Chambal	Rajasthan
Lucknow	Gomti	UP
Ludhiana	Sutlej	Punjab
Nasik	Godavari	Maharashtra
Pandharpur	Bhima	Maharashtra
Patna	Ganga	Bihar
Sambalpur	Mahanadi	Orissa
Srinagar	Jhelum	J&K
Surat	Tapti	Gujarat
Tiruchirapalli	Cauvery	Tamil Nadu
Varanasi	Ganga	UP
Vijaywada	Krishna	AP

 

		Industries of India
1.	Iron & Steel	IISCO has 3 Plants at Kulti, Hirapur & Burnpur. Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel
		Co is located on the bank of Bhadravati river in Karnataka.
		Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) at Bhilai, Durgapur & Bokaro.
2.	Cotton Textile	4% of GDP. 3.5 Crore population employed.
3.	Sugar Industry
4.	Aluminum	HINDALCO (Renukoot), INDAL (Alupuram, Hirakud, Belgaum), Madras
	Industry	Aluminium Company (MALCO, Mettur), BALCO (Korba), NALCO
		(Koraput)
5.	Copper Smelting	HCL is the main player & operates Khetri copper complex, Indian copper
		complex (Ghatsila, Jharkhand), Malanjkhand copper project (Balghat,
		M.P.), Taloja copper project (Raigad, Maharashtra).
6.	Jute Textile	Centers are Titagarh, budge-budge, Haora, Rishra, Serampore,
		Bhadreshware, Shyamnagar.
7.	Silk Textile	Its varieties are Mulberry (88%), Eri (9%), Tassar (2%), Muga (1%)
8.	Woolen Textile	Punjab, Maharashtra & U.P account for 75% production. Dhariwal is most
		important centre. Others are Amritsar, Ludhiana, Kharar.
9.	Heavy Industry	Heavy Engineering Corp Ltd (Ranchi), Tungabhadra Steel Products Ltd
		(Karnataka), Bharat heavy plates & Vessels (Vishakhapatnam)
		Mining & allied machinery corporation (Durgapur).
10.	Machine Tools	HMT (Bangalore, Pinjore in Haryana, Kalamassery in Kerala, Hyderabad,
		Ajmer & Sri Nagar), Heavy Machine Tools (Ranchi), Machine Tools Corp
		of India (Ajmer), National Instruments Factory at Kolkata.
11.	Automobiles	TELCO in Mumbai, Ashok Leyland in Chennai, Bajaj Tempo (Pune).
		Defense vehicles are produced at Jabalpur.
12.	Pesticides	Hindustan Insecticides Ltd (Delhi, Kerala & Rasayani, Maharashtra)
		Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd (Rasayani, Raigad & Kochi)
13.	Cement Industry	Top manufacturing states are M.P, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pr & Raj. Jamul
		is largest plant of M.P. & Sawai Madhopur leads in Rajasthan
14.	Leather Industry	India is 3rd largest player after Italy & U.S.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

15.	Glass Industry	Bahjoi & Naini (Both in U.P.) are famous for glass sheets & Firozabad for
		bangles.
16.	Paper Industry	Rajmundhry (Andhra Pr), Ballarpur (Maharshtra), Titagarh (Bengal)
		Bhadravati, Dandeli (Karnataka), Hoshangabad (M.P)
17.	Liquor Industry	U.P. has more than 50% installed capacity. Maharashtra, A.P are others.
18.	Aircraft industry	Important centres are Hal-Bangalore, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Others are
		Koraput (Orissa) & Nasik.
19.	Railway	Chittaranjan Locomotive works (Electric engines) – West Bengal
	Equipments	Diesel Locomotive works	– Varanasi
		Integral Coach Factory	– Perambur, Tamil Nadu
		Rail Coach Factory	– Kapurthala, Punjab.
		Diesel Componets Works	– Patiala
		Railway wheels & Axels	– Yalahanka (Banalore) & Durgapur.
20.	Ship Building	Hindustan Shipyard (Vishakhapatnam), Garden-Reach Shipbuilders
		(Kolkata), Mazagaon Dock (Mumbai), Goa Shipyard (Vasco).
21.	Pharmaceuticals	IDPL – Rhishikesh, Hyderabad, Gurgaon, Chennai, Muzzafarpur
		Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd – Pimpri, Pune – first public sector undertaking
		in this industry
22.	Zinc & Lead	Hindustan Zinc Ltd at Debari, Rajasthan (both zinc & lead)
23.	Fertilizers	Fci-Sindri
	Industry	National Fertilizers Limited – Nangal
		Hindustan Fertilizer Corp Ltd- Namrup (Assam), Durgapur.
		Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd – Trombay, Thal
		Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, U.P & Maharashtra are the 4 largest in order.
24.	Heavy Electricals	BHEL (Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Ramchandrapuram in A.P, Jammu,
		Bangalore, Hardwar). Ms ABL at Durgapur.
		Hindustan Cables Factory (Rupnarainpur, Bengal), Indian Telephone
		industries (Bangalore), Bharat Electronics (Bangalore),
		Electronics corporation of India (Hyderabad)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

		Industrial Regions of India
4.	Mumbai-Pune rgion	Tata hydel stations at Khopali, Bhivpuri, Bhira & koyna
		Solapur, Satara, Sangli & Ahmednagar
5.	Hugli Industrial Belt	From Naihati to Budge-Budge along left bank & Tribeni to
		Nalpur along right bank. Other centres are Serampur, Rishra,
		Shibpur, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Bansbaria,
		Belgurriah, Triveni, Belur.

 

 

 

 

6.

Bangalore-Tamil Nadu

Pykara project supplies electricity. Salem, Madurai,

Tiruchirapalli, Mettur, Mysore, Mandya.

7.

Ahmedabad-Vadodara

Dhuvaran Thermal power station, Uttaran gas power station,

Ukai hydro project. Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar,

Rajkot, Surat, Valsad, Jamnagar

8.

Chhotanagpur Region

Chaibasa, Dhanbad, Sindri, Hazaribagh, Asansol, Durgapur,

Dalmianagar, Ranchi, Daltonganj.

9.

Gurgaon Delhi Meerut

Faridabad, Modinagar, Ambala, Agra, Mathura

Six Largest National Highways

National Highway

Route

Lengh Km

NH 7

Varanasi-Kanyakumari

2369

NH 6

Kolkata & Dhule via Raipur, Nagpur.

1932

NH 5

Baharagora-Chennai

1533

NH 2

Delhi-Kolkata

1490

NH 8

Delhi-Mumbai

1428

NH 17

Panvel-Edapally (Karnataka)

1270

Important National Highways

NH-1

Delhi to Amritsar via Ambala & Jallandhar

456

NH-1A

Jallandhar & Uri via Jammu, Srinagar & Baramula

NH 22

Ambala to Shipkila on Indo china border

460

NH 28 A

Pipra to Nepal border

68

NH 35

Barasat-Bongaigaon-Indo Bangladesh border

61

NH 39

Numaligarh-Indo Burma border.

436

NH 3

Agra to Mumbai via Gwalior

NH 4

Chennai with Thane

Important Industrial Centers of India

1.

Ferozabad

Glass Bangles

2.

Mirzapur

Pottery

3.

Jaipur

Gems Industry

4.

Trivandrum

Wood Carving

5.

Kadi

Mineral Oil

6.

Korba

Aluminium

7.

Bhatinda

Fertilizers

 

 

 

 

 

 

		Racial Profile of India
1.	Negritos	Only on Andamans & Nicobar
2.	Proto-Australoid	Includes Tribal group of central & southern India. Veddahs,
		Maleveddahs, Irulas, Sholgas considere true representative.
3.	Mongoloids	Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Lipchas, Chakmas, Murmis, Naga & Dafla
4.	Mediterranean	Divided into: Palaeo-Mediterranean (or Dravidians) inhabiting

 

 

 

 

			southern parts of India & True Mediterranean inhabiting northern &
			western part of the country.
	5.	Brachycephals	Characterized by broad heads. Coorgis & Parsis are representative.
			They are divided into Alpinoids, Dinarics & Armenoids
	6.	Nordics/Indo-Aryans	Inhabit parts of north India. They are mostly represented among the
			upper castes in northern India esp in Punjab

 

Demographic Profile of India

 

S.	Parameter	Top in Parameter	Bottom in Parameter
1.	Population	U.P, Maharasthra, Bihar, W.	Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal
	(1027 million)	Bengal & Andhra Pr.	Pradesh & Goa
		Delhi (UTs)	Lakshadweep (UT)
2.	Population Density	West Bengal (904), Bihar (880),	Arunachal Pr (13), Mizoram,
	(324 per/Sq km)	Kerala, U.P, Punjab.	Sikkim
		Delhi	Andaman & Nicobar.
3.	Popln Growth	Nagaland (64%), Sikkim	Kerala (9.4%)
4.	Growth Urban population	Arunachal Pradesh	Kerala
		Dadra & Nagar haveli
5.	Growth rural population	Nagaland	Tamil Nadu
6.	Proportion of Urban Populn	Goa (50%)	Arunachal Pradesh (5%)
			Dadra & Nagar Haveli
7.	Average size of Villages	Kerala (~15000 people)	Arunachal (~200)
8.	Sex Ratio (933)	Kerala (1058)	Haryana (861), Punjab &
		Pondicherry	Sikkim
			Daman & Diu
9.	Death Rate	Orissa	Kerala (6 per thousand)
10.	Infant Mortality Rate	Orissa	Kerala
11.	Literacy	Kerala (91%), Mizoram, Goa,	Bihar (47%), Jharkhand,
		Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh	J&K, Arunachal Pr, U.P.
		Lakshadweep (UT)	Dadra & Nagar Haveli (UT)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The https://exam.pscnotes.com/green-revolution”>Green Revolution was initiated in the 1960’s to address the issue of Malnutrition in the developing world. The technology of the Green Revolution involved bio-engineered seeds that worked in Conjunction with chemical Fertilizers and heavy Irrigation to increase crop yields.

Green Revolution was largely confined in wheat crop and in northern India such as Punjab, resulting in a limited contribution to overall Economic Development of the country. On the contrary, the agricultural Growth in the 1980s (the second wave of the Green Revolution) involved almost all the crops including rice and covered the whole country, it enabled to raise rural income and alleviate rural POVERTY substantially. Such a rise of rural India as a “market‟ for non-agricultural products and Services was an important pre-requisite for the rapid economic growth based on non-agricultural sectors‟ development in India after the 1990s.

Green Revolution is based on:-

(i) improved seeds of high yielding varieties,
(ii) adequate and assured supply of water for irrigation, and
(iii) increased and appropriate application of chemical fertilizers for increasing agricultural production.

India has failed to extend the concept of high-yield value seeds to all crops or all regions. In terms of crops, it remain largely confined to foodgrains only, not to all kinds of agricultural produce. In regional terms, only Punjab and Haryana states showed the best results of the Green Revolution. The eastern plains of the River Ganges in West Bengal state also showed reasonably good results. But results were less impressive in other parts of India. Those states which were originally rich derived the benefits of Green Revolution, e.g., Punjab, Haryana and Western U.P. As the benefits of new technology concentrated mainly in these areas, other Indian states could not match them.