Indian geography

 

The rapid pace of https://exam.pscnotes.com/Population–Growth“>Population Growth has led to the excessive utilization of Resources“>Natural Resources. Huge population also leads to huge production of wastes. The resultant outcomes are loss of Biodiversity, pollution of air, water and Soil and increased pressure on arable land. All these have been putting great Stress on the Environment. If you take the case of India, it supports 17 percent of world population on just 2.4 per cent of the world land area.

The earth’s carrying capacity in terms of its food resource is approaching its limits. Oceanic supply of fish, rangelands which support Livestock, and the Hydrological Cycle to produce freshwater are strained. The backlog of unused agricultural technology is shrinking in industrial and developing countries alike, slowing the rise in cropland productivity. At the same time, soil erosion, Air Pollution, soil compaction, aquifer depletion, the loss of soil organic matter, and the waterlogging and salting of irrigated land are all slowing food production. At present, it appears that nothing can reverse the worldwide decline in grain output per person. The bottomline is that the world’s farmers can no longer be counted on to feed the projected additions to the present population. Attaining a humane balance between food production and population growth now depends more on family planners instead of farmers.

Mazor impact of popuatlion growth on Environment are:

• Resource Scarcity:

– Food

– Energy (coal, oil, uranium)

– Raw materials (iron, copper, wood, water)

• Environmental Impacts

– Soil degradation

– Deforestation

– Global Warming

Population growth would not be sustainable if it has important negative impacts that will jeopardize the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

 

Crop	State	Prod	Prod	Yield	Rainfall	Temp	https://exam.pscnotes.com/soil”>Soil
		%	(Mil	Kg/Ha	cm	Deg C
			T)
Rice	W. Bengal	15	87	1900	125-200 cm	>23 C	Deep Fertile
	UP	14					Clayey or loamy
	Andhra Pr	13					soil
	Punjab	11
Wheat	UP	35	74	2700	80 cm	10-25 C	Light loam

 

	Punjab	20					Sandy Loam
	Haryana	172					Clay Loam
	M.P.	11
Jowar	Maharashtra	47	7.7	770	30-65 cm	27-32 C	Black clayey soil
	Karnataka	20
	M.P.	10
Bajra	Rajasthan	33	7.1	720	40-50 cm	25-30 C	Light sandy
	UP	18					Shallow black
	Gujarat	16					Red upland soil
	Maharashtra	14
Maize	U.P.	15	12.1	1850	50-75 cm	21-27 C	Well drained
	Karnataka	15					alluvial or red
	Rajasthan	11					loamy soil
	Bihar/MP	10
Barley	UP	44	1.7	1750	70-90 cm	10-18 C	Light soil
	Rajasthan	30
	MP	7
Ragi	Karnataka	60	2.3	1350
	TamilNadu	13
	U.P.	8
Pulses	M.P.	25	14
	U.P.	20
	Rajasthan	17
Gram	M.P.	40	3.5	720	35-50 cm	20-25 C	Drained loamy
	Rajasthan	31					soil
	U.P.	12
Tur/Arhar	Maharashtra	22	2.3	620	40-80 cm	20-25 C	Range of soil
	U.P.	20
	M.P./Gujar.	15
Sugarcane	U.P.	43	300	70 tonne	150 cm	20-25 C	Deep rich loamy
	Maharashtra	14					soil
	Tamil Nadu	13
	Karnataka	10

Commercial & Plantation Crops of India

Crop	State	Prod	Prod	Yield	Rainfall	Temp	Soil
		%	(Mil	Kg/Ha	Cm	Deg C
			T)
Cotton	Gujarat	28	11.6	226	50-75 cm	21-30 C	Black Soil
	Maharashtra	15	Million
	Andhra Pr	11	Bales
	Haryana	10	170 Kg
Jute	W. Bengal	75	10	1960	125-200 cm	25-35 C	Light sandy or

 

Bihar

14

Million

Clayey Loams

Assam

9

Bales

Orissa

1

180 kg

Tobacco

Andhra Pr.

31

.65

1400

50 cm

15-38 C

Well Drained

Gujarat

29

Friable sandy

U.P.

23

loams

Groundnut

Gujarat

33

9.2

1220

50-100 cm

20-30 C

Sandy loam, red,

Andra Pr.

15

yellow, black soil

Tamil Nadu

22

Sunflower

Karnataka

47

1.3

620

50 cm

15-25 C

Loamy soils

Maharashtra

23

Andhra Pr.

17

5

Soyabeen

M.P.

75

1000

50 cm

14-24 C

Friable loamy

Maharashtra

13

Acidic Soil

Rajasthan

9

Tea

Assam

55

0.78

1900

150-250 cm

25-30 C

Well drained deep

W. Bengal

22

friable loams or

Tamil Nadu

15

Acidic Forest soil

Coffee

Karnataka

71

0.3

960

150-250 cm

15-28 C

Well drained

Kerala

21

friable forest loam

Tamil Nadu

8

Rubber

Kerala

90

0.6

1600

300 cm

25-35 C

Deep, well

Tamil Nadu

drained loams

Oilseeds

1.

Ground Nut

Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu

2.

Rapeseed &

Rajasthan (45%), U.P, M.P.

Mustard

3.

Seasum

Gujarat (28 %), W. Bengal

4.

Linseed

U.P, Maharashtra

5.

Castorseed

Gujarat (82%)

6.

Soyabeen

Madhya Pradesh (75%), Maharashtra, Rajasthan

7.

Sunflower

Karnataka (47%), Maharashtra (23%), Andhra Pradesh (17%)

8.

Coconut

Kerala (45%), Tamil Nadu (28 %)

 

 

 

 

 

		Spices
1.	Black Pepper	Kerala (97 %)
2.	Chillies	Andhra Pradesh (37%)
3.	Turmeric	Andhra Pradesh (56%)
4.	Ginger	Kerala (22), Meghalaya (20%)
5.	Cardamom	Karnataka (57%)
6.	Arecanut	Karnataka (41%), Kerala (30%)

 

Horticultural Crops

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.					Mango	UP (32), Bihar (13) Andhra Pradesh. Accounts for 40 percent of all fruits
2.					Banana	Maharashtra (28%), Gujarat (10%), Andhra Pradesh. Jalgaon district
						alone supplies more than 80 % of Maharashtra’s Banana
3.					Cashew	Kerala (31%), Maharashtra (18%), Andhra Pradesh (14%). Cashew is a
						genus of Brazil. Largest Foreign Exchange earner
4.					Orange	Maharashtra, M.P, Karnataka. Genus from China
5.					Grapes	Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra. Native plant of Armenia. Grapes are
						imported in India.
6.					Guava	U.P., Bihar. Native plant of Tropical America
7.					Apple	J & K, Himachal		Pr, Uttaranchal
8.					Potato	U.P (35%), West Bengal (33%)
9.					Onion	Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
								Types of Crops
				Kharif Crops			Rice, Maize, Jowar, Ragi, Bajra, Tur, Moong, Urad, Cotton,
							Jute, Seasum, Groundnut, Soyabeen,
				Rabi Crops			Wheat, Barley, Jowar, Rapeseed, Mustard, Linseed, Lentil,
							Gram, Peas
				Zaid Crops			Sown during march to June. E.g. Water Melon, Melon,
							Cucumber, Vegetables, Moong, Urad.
				Jowar is both a Kharif & Rabi Crop.

 

Rice

The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the Indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. north-eastern India).Rice is a nutritional staple food which provides instant energy as its most important component is carbohydrate (starch). Rice is grown in almost all the states of India. The main rice producing states are Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujrat and Kashmir Valley. The rice growing areas in the country can be broadly grouped into five regions as discussed below :

1. North-Eastern Region:This region comprises of Assam and North eastern states. In Assam rice is grown in the basin of Brahmnaputra river. This region receives very heavy rainfall and rice is grown under rain fed condition.
2. Eastern Region This region comprises of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In this region rice is grown in the basins of Ganga and Mahanadi rivers and has the highest intensity of rice cultivation in the country. This region receives heavy rainfall and rice is grown mainly under rain fed conditions.

iii. Northern Region: This region comprises of Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The region experiences low winter temperature and single crop of rice from May-July to September-December is grown.

1. Western Region: This region comprises of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Rice is largely grown under rain fed condition during June-August to October – December.
2. Southern Region: This region comprises of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Rice is mainly grown in deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers and the non-deltaic rain fed area of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is grown under irrigated condition in deltaic tracts.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the beginning of summer. Normally (in north India) the sowing of wheat begins in the month of October-November and harvesting is done in the month of March-April. This is the staple food of millions of people particularly in the northern and north-western regions of India. Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly as a rabi or winter crop.

The main regions of wheat production in India are U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,Maharashtra. U.P., Punjab and Haryana together produce more than 66% of the total wheat of the country.

Cotton

 

Cotton requires a daily minimum temperature of 16ºC for germination and 21ºC to 27ºC for proper crop Growth. During the fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from 27ºC to 32ºC and cool nights are needed. The sowing season of cotton varies considerably from tract to tract and is generally early (April-May) in northern India where it is mostly irrigated. It is delayed on proceeding to down south. It is cultivated largely under rainfed or dryland conditions. An annual rainfall of atleast 50 centimetre distributed through-out the growing season is required for good yield. It is mainly raised during tropical monsoon season, although in southern India it is cultivated during late-monsoon season in winter. The cotton-picking period from mid September to November must have bright sunny days to ensure a good quality.

India has the largest area under cultivation and third largest producer of cotton next only to China and the USA. Within the country two third of total area and production is shared by four states. The main states for cotton production are Panjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

Jute

Jute is a crop of humid tropical climates. It thrives well in areas with well distributed rainfall of 2,500 mm spread over vegetative growth period of the crop with no Cloudiness. Locations with a mean rainfall of <1,000 mm, incessant rainfall and waterlogging are not suitable for its cultivation.

West Bengal, Bihar and Assam grow jute extensively.

Sugercane

Sugarcane belongs to the grass family. It has a thick jointed stem, Which contains the cane sugar, The juice can be taken as a drink or made into sugar, jaggery or khandsari. . The by-products of sugar are very useful. Bagasse is used to make paper, cattle feed, fuel for mills-and cardboard; molasses for power alcohol. Fertilizers, yeast and rum; and press mud of wax. and shoe polish. It supports the pesticide and fertilizer industries. Sugar factories provide EMPLOYMENT to over a million ‘workers. India is the second largest sugarcane producer in the world.

Climatic and Soil conditions which favour the cultivation of sugarcane are:-

• Temperature: 20°C-30°C. Temperature above 50°C arrests its growth and temperature below 20°C slows down its growth.
• Rain: 75-120cms. It cannot withstand frost. For ripening it needs a cool dry season.
• Soil: A medium heavy loam is ideal-In northern India it is cultivated on clay loams and alluvial soil while in south India it is cultivated on brown or reddish loams, black cotton soil and laterites.

Leading sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab.Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

Rubber

Rubber tree is sturdy, quick growing and tall. It grows on many Types of Soil provided the soil is deep and well drained. A warm humid equitable Climate (2 1′ to 35′) and a fairly distributed rainfall of not less than 200 c m are necessary for the cultivation of rubber crop.

Kerala (accounts for 90% of the total area under rubber), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andamanand Nicobar Islands. Parts of West Bengal. Orrisa., Maharashtra, Karnataka and’N.E parts of India are potential regions for rubber-cultivation.

Tea

Commercial Tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea Plants were discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam.

Climatic conditions required for the growing of tea are

• Temp: 13-35°C. Average of 25°C is suitable.
• Humidity: – High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog promote growth if healthy leaves.
• Rainfall: Annual rainfalI (range) 150-350cm (well distributed)
• Soil- Well drained mountain soil, Light, loamy, porous rich in nitrogen and iron/ laterite like the soil found in Assam

Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than 50% of tea production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second largest producer of tea where tea is mostly grown in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.

Coffee

Commercial cultivation of coffee was started by British entrepreneurs in South India during 1820’s.

Most of India’s coffee is grown in three Southern states: Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, the first two account for nearly 90 percent of total production. Much of the coffee in Kerala and Karnataka is grown in the Western Ghats, a mountain chain that runs parallel to the coast line and about 100 miles inland from the Arabian Sea. India exports nearly 70 percent of the coffee it produces. These exports consist mainly of high grade beans from both the Arabica and the Robusta growing regions.

Geographical Requirement for Coffee cultivation are as follows:-

• Temperatute:- should be ranging between 15 to 28°C throughout the year. Frost free Environment. Direct raysof the sun are harmfui as it.is grown in the shade of trees. In its early stages of growth it needs to be protected from hot.dry winds.
• Rainfall:- 125cm- 250 cms throughout the year.
• Soil:-. Well drained, weathered volcanic soil, red and laterite soil. The presence of humus is essential. .
• Topography:- grows on hill slopes at elevation ranging from 500mts to 1800mts.

 

Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset. Planning, development and management of Resources“>Water Resources need to be governed by national perspectives.

India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water resources and about 16 per cent of world’s Population. The total water available from https://exam.pscnotes.com/precipitation”>Precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.

There are four main sources of water:

(i) Surface water

(ii) Underground water

(iii) Atmospheric water, and

(iv) Oceanic water

(i) Surface water

Water found on the surface is called surface water. About two – third of the total surface water flows into three major rivers of the country – Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputras. The water storage capacity of reservoirs constructed in India so far is about 17400 billion cubic metres. At the time of independence, the water storage capacity was only 180 billion cubic metres. Hence water storage capacity has increased about ten times.

India’s Average annual surface run-off generated by rainfall and snowmelt is estimated to be about 1869 billion cubic meter (BCM). However, it is estimated that only about 690 BCM or 37 per cent of the surface water resources can actually be mobilised. This is because (i) over 90 per cent of the annual flow of the Himalayas rivers occur over a four month period and (ii) potential to capture such resources is complicated by limited suitable storage reservoir sites.

(ii) Underground water

It refers to all water below the water table to great depths. In the Soil, both water and air coexist in the pore spaces. A profound consequence is that the capillary water in the soil can only be extracted by plant roots, within certain range of conditions. Ground water, on the other hand can be extracted by humans through wells. Ground water and soil water together constitute the lower part of the Hydrological Cycle. The annual potential natural of ground water recharge from rainfall in India is about 342.43 km3 , which is 8.56% of total annual rainfall of the country.

Underground water is used on a large scale in the areas where the rainfall is comparatively less. Underground water is used on a large scale in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh whereas Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnatake and Chhattisgarh are such states where inspite of less rainfall, the use of underground water is less. There is a great need to develop underground water resources here.

(iii) Atmospheric water

Evaporation and Transpiration change liquid water into vapor, which ascends into the Atmosphere due to rising air currents. Cooler temperatures aloft allow the vapor to condense into clouds and strong winds move the clouds around the world until the water falls as precipitation to replenish the earthbound parts of the water cycle. About 90 percent of water in the atmosphere is produced by evaporation from water bodies, while the other 10 percent comes from transpiration from Plants.

(iv) Oceanic water

The Ocean plays a key role in this vital cycle of water. The ocean holds 97% of the total water on the planet; 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean, and it is the source of 86% of global evaporation. Besides affecting the amount of atmospheric water vapor and hence rainfall, evaporation from the sea surface is important in the movement of heat in the Climate system. Water evaporates from the surface of the ocean, mostly in warm, cloud-free subtropical seas.

 

According to FAO https://exam.pscnotes.com/food-security”>Food Security  is “a situation in which all people at all times have access to adequate quantities of safe and nutritious food to lead a healthy and active life”.

This definition requires three basic conditions to be met:

1) adequacy, i.e. supplies from domestic production, stocks and imports are sufficient to meet the nation’s needs,

2) availability i.e. stability of supply both spatially and temporally throughout the year and

3) access, i.e. the Population has sufficient purchasing power to gain access to its food needs.

India is one of the few countries which have experimented with a broad spectrum of programmes for improving food security. It has already made substantial progress in terms of overcoming transient food insecurity by giving priority to self-sufficiency in foodgrains and through procurement and public distribution of foodgrains, EMPLOYMENT programmes, etc. However, despite a significant reduction in the incidence of POVERTY chronic food insecurity persists in a large proportion of India’s population.

The range of adverse events, including reduced freshwater availability and more frequent extreme weather events, will considerably increase the risks for more efficient crop production and Livestock management. Climate-change”>Climate Change is also likely to affect Soil quality by depleting organic matter – a major contributor to Soil fertility. In extreme cases, the degradation of the agricultural Ecosystems could mean Desertification, resulting in a total loss of the productive capacity of the land in question.

Food security is a multidimensional concept covering even the  micro level household food security,energy intakes and indicators of Malnutrition.

Major components of food security are:-

1. Production and Procurement
2. Storage
3. Distribution

Agriculture-notes-for-state-psc-exams”>Agriculture“>Indian Agriculture is rightly called as a gamble with Monsoon, variability in food production and rising population creates food insecurity in the nation and worst effected are the downtrodden section of the Society.

While India has seen impressive economic Growth in recent years, the country still struggles with widespread poverty and hunger. India’s poor population amounts to more than 300 million people, with almost 30 percent of India’s rural population living in poverty. The good news is, poverty has been on the decline in recent years. According to official government of India estimates, poverty declined from 37.2% in 2004-05 to 29.8% in 2009-10.

Need for Self-Sufficiency:

India suffered two very severe droughts in 1965 and 1966. Food Aid to India was restricted to a monthly basis by USA under the P.L. 480 programme.  The Green Revolution made a significant change in the scene. India achieved self-sufficiency in food grains by the year 1976 through the implementation of the seed- water-fertilizer policy adopted by the Government of India.

Food grain production increased four-fold during 1950-51 and 2001-2002 from 51 million tons to 212 million tones. The country is no longer exposed to real famines. But the regional variation in the success of Green Revolution which was chiefly limited to northern- Western states has lead to the divide in the nation. Evergreen revoloution and Bringing green revolution to eastern India is the need of the hour.

Green revolution was focused on wheat and rice and thus the production of pulses was stagnant.

National Food Security Mission comprising rice, wheat and pulses to increase the production of rice by 10 million tons, wheat by 8 million tons and pulses by 2 million tons by the end of the Eleventh Plan (2011-12). The Mission is being continued during 12th Five Year Plan with new targets of additional production of food grains of 25 million tons of food grains comprising of 10 million tons rice, 8 million tons of wheat, 4 million tons of pulses and 3 million tons of coarse Cereals by the end of 12th Five Year Plan.
The National Food Security Mission (NFSM) during the 12th Five Year Plan will have five components

(i) NFSM- Rice;

(ii) NFSM-Wheat;

(iii) NFSM-Pulses,

(iv) NFSM-Coarse cereals and

(v) NFSM-Commercial Crops.

Government through Public Distribution System has tried to counter the problem of food insecurity by providing the food grains through fair price shops.

The central Government through Food Corporation of India has assumed the responsibilities of  procurement,storage,transfer and bulk allocation of food grains to state governments.

The public distribution system (PDS) has played an important role in attaining higher levels of the household food security and completely eliminating the threats of famines from the face of the country, it will be in the fitness of things that its evolution, working and efficacy are examined in some details.

PDS was initiated as a deliberate social policy of the government with the objectives of:

1. i) Providing foodgrains and other essential items to vulnerable sections of the society at resonable (subsidised) prices;
2. ii) to have a moderating influence on the open market prices of cereals, the distribution of which constitutes a fairly big share of the total marketable surplus; and

iii) to attempt socialisation in the matter of distribution of essential commodities.

The focus of the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) is on “poor in all areas” and TPDS involves issue of     35 Kg of food grains per family per month for the population Below Poverty Line (BPL) at specially subsidized prices. The TPDS requires the states to Formulate and implement :-

1. foolproof arrangements for identification of poor,
2. Effective delivery of food grains to Fair Price Shops (FPSs)

Its distribution in a transparent and accountable manner at the FPS level

Mineral	State	Mines/Districts
Coal	Jharkhand	Jharia, Bokaro, Giridh, karanpura, Ramgarh, Daltonganj,
		Aurangabad, Hutar, Deogarh, Rajmahal
	Orissa	Talcher, Rampur
	M.P (Former)	Central Indian Coalfields -Singrauli, Sohagpur, Johilla, Umaria
		Satupura Coalfields – Pench, Kanhan, Pathkhera
		North Chhattisgarh – Chirmiri-Kaurasia, Bisrampur, Jhillmili,
		Sonhat, Lakhanpur, Sendurgarh, lakhanpur-Ramkola
		South Chhattisgarh-Hasdo-Arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh
	West Bengal	Raniganj, Darjeeling
	Andhra Pr.	Singareni, Kothgundam, Tandur
	Maharashtra	Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee, Bander
Tetiary	Meghalaya	Daranggiri, Cherpunji, Laitryngew, Mawlong, Langrin, Pendengru,
coal		Longoi, Waimong
	Assam	Makum, Jaipur, Nazira
	Arunachal Pr	Namchuk-Namphuk
	J & K	Kalakot, Mohogala, Metka
	Rajasthan	Palana (lignite) & Khari
Petroleum	North-East	Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran, Rudrasagar, Galeki, Hugrijan, Nigru,
		Borholla
	Gujarat	Ankeleshwar, Kalol, Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana,
		Barkol,Mehsana, Sanand, Lunej, Aliabet island
	Mumbai High	Bombay high, Bassein
	East Coast	Narimanam, Kovillapal, Amlapur, Rawa
	Other	Jaiselmer, Jwalamukhi Area (Punjab)
Natural	Mumbai	Bombay high, Bassein
Gas	Gujarat	Jagatia, Gogha
	Assam	Nahorkatiya & Moran
	Tamil Nadu	Neypaltur, Mangamadam, Avadi, Virugambakam
	Tripura	Baranura, Atharnure
	Rajasthan	Barmer, Charaswala
	Arunachal Pr	Non Chick, Mia-Pung, Laptan pung
	Himachal Pr	Jwalamukhi, Kangra
	West Bengal	Medinipur
Uranium		Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Bhatin, Narwapahar under Uranium
		Corportation in India are the only mines worked at present
Thorium		Beach Sands (Kerala), Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pr, Orissa
Iron Ore	Chhattisgarh 24 %	Dalli, Rajhra (Durg), Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri
	Goa (21%)	Sanquelim, Sanguem, Quepem, Satari, Ponda, Bicholim
	Karnataka (20%)	Bellary, Hospet, Sandur
	Jharkhand (17 %)	Noamund, Gua
	Orissa (15 %)	Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj),
		Kiriburu, Meghahataburu, Bonai (Sundargarh).
	Maharashtra	Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, Bhandara
	Andhra Pr.	Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnod, Cuddapah, Anantpur district
	Tamil Nadu	Tirthmalai, Yadapalli, Killimalai, kanjamalai, & Gondumalai
Copper	M. P (46%)	Balghat (Malanjkhand)
	Rajasthan (33%)	Khetri (Jhunjhunu & Alwar)
	Jharkhand (21%)	Singhbum
Manganese	Karnataka (38%)	Bellary, North Kanara, Shimoga
	Orissa (17%)	Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir
	M.P. (10 %)	Balghat
	Maharashtra (8%)	Nagpur & Bhandara
Bauxite	Orissa (44 %)	Koraput, Kalahandi, Sundargarh
	Jharkhand (18 %)	Gumla, Lohardaga, Ranchi, Palamau
	Maharashtra (13%)	Kolhapur, Ratnagir
	Chhattisgarh(11%)	Bastar, Bilaspur, Surguja district
	M.P. (11 %)	Mandla, Satna, Jabalpur, Shahdol
	Gujarat (8 %)	Jamnagar, Kachchh, Junagarh
	Tamil Nadu (4 %)	Salem, Nilgiri
Chromite	Orissa (97 %)	Sukinda, Kendujhar, Dhenkanal ditricts
	Karnataka (2.3 %)	Hassan
	Maharashtra (%)	Chandrapur
	Jharkhand (%)	Purbi & Paschmi Singhbum district
	Andhra Pr (%)	Khammam
Lead	Rajasthan (80 %)	Zawar region (Udaipur), Dariba, Rajura
	Orissa (11%)
	Andhra Pr (8 %)
Zinc	Rajasthan (99 %)	Zawar –a. Pipli khan to Barla khan b. Mochia, Magra, Balaria
	Sikkim
Gold	Karnataka (67 %)	Kolar, Hutti gold fields (Raichur), Gulbarga
	Jharkhand (26 %)	Subarnarekha, Sona, Sanjai, South koel, Garra rivers
	Andhra Pr (7 %)	Ramgiri Gold Fields (Anantapur district)
Silver	Andhra Pr (42 %)
	Bihar Jharkhand32
	Rajashtan (25 %)	Zawar
	Karnataka
Nickel	Orissa	Cuttack, Kyonjhar, & Maiyurbhanj

 

 

			Project			River	State
	56.		Damodar Valley Project			Damodar	West Bengal & Jharkhand. It includes Maithon
							& Tilaiya Dam on Barakar river in Bihar, Konar
							Dam (Konar river) & Panchet Dam (Damodar).
	57.		Rihand Dam			Rihand	Uttar Pradesh
	58.		Nagarjunasagar Project			Krishna	Andhra Pradesh. Consists of two canals – Lal
							Bahadur Canal (Left) & Jawahar canal (Right).
	59.		Tungabhadra Project			Tungabhadra	JV of Andhra Pr & Karnataka.
	60.		Gandak Project			Gandak	JV between UP, Bihar & Nepal
	61.		Kosi Project			Kosi	JV of Bihar & Nepal
	62.		Beas Project			Beas	Includes Pong Dam
	63.		Mayurkashi Project			Mayurkashi	Mayurkashi is a tributary of Hugli.
	64.		Indira Gandhi Canal				It consists of Rajastan Feeder Canal (taking off
							from Harike Barrage, 204 km long, fully lined
							masonry canal) & Rajasthan main canal (445
							Km)
	65.		Narmada Valley Project				Involves  Sardar  Sarovar  dam  in  Gujarat  &
							Narmada sagar (or Indira Sagar) dam in M.P.
	66.		Pochampad Project			Godavari	Andhra Pradesh.
	67.		Tehri Dam			Bhagirathi	Uttaranchal.  Implemented  with  Soviet  Aid.
							Highest rock fall dam in the country.
	68.		Parambikulam Project				JV between https://exam.pscnotes.com/tamil”>Tamil Nadu & Kerala.
						Hydro-Electric Projects
	69.		Mata Tella Dam			Betwa	Near Jhansi in U.P.
	70.		Kangsbati Project				West Bengal
	71.		Rajasthan Canal Project			Sutlej, Beas	JV of Punjab & Rajastan. Ravi water is also
							used.
	72.		Kadana Project			Mahi	Gujarat
	73.		Tata Hydroelectric Scheme			Indravati	Maharashtra. Called Bhivpuri dam.
	74.		Koyna Hydroelectic Dam			Koyna	Maharashtra
	75.		Sivasamudram			Cauvery Falls	Karnataka

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

76.	Pykara Hydro Elec Project	Pykara	Tamil Nadu (along Nilgiris)
77.	Mettur Project	Cauvery	Tamil Nadu
78.	Papansam Scheme	Tambraparni	Tamil Nadu
79.	Sabargiri Hydel Project	Pampa	Kerala
80.	Idukki Project	Periyar	Kerala
81.	Sholayar Project	Sholayar	Kerala. JV between Kerala & Tamil Nadu
82.	Machkund Power Project	Machkund	Orissa. JV between A.P & Orissa
83.	Srisailam Power Project	Krishna	Andhra Pradesh
84.	Balimela Hydro Project	Sileru river	JV between A.P & Orissa
85.	Umiam Project	Umiam	Meghalaya
86.	Salal Hydro Project	Chenab	J & K
87.	Thein Dam Project	Ravi	Punjab
88.	Banasagar Project	Son	JV between MP, UP & Bihar
89.	Jayakwadi Project	Godavari	Maharashtra
90.	Kakrapara Project	Tapi	Gujarat
91.	Mahi Project	Mahi	Gujarat
92.	Malprabha Project	Malprabha	Karnataka
93.	Pallivasal project	Mudirapujha	Kerala
94.	Poochampad	Godavari	Andhra Pradesh
95.	Rajghat Dam Project	Betwa
96.	Sarda Sahayak	Ghagara	Uttar Pradesh
97.	Hansdev Bango Project	Hansdev	M.P.
98.	Tawa Project	Tawa	M.P. Tawa is tributary of Narmada
99.	Ukai Project	Tapi	Gujarat
100.	Purna Project	Purna	Maharashtra
101.	Rana Pratap Sagar	Chambal	Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)
102.	Jawahar Sagar Dam	Chambal	Rajasthan (Kota)
103.	Gandhi Sagar Dam	Chambal	Churasigarh Fort at MP-Rajasthan border
104.	Chibro	Tons	Uttar Pradesh
43.	Dool Hasti	Chenab	J & K.
105.	Nathpa Jhakri	Satluj	Himachal Pr. Biggest hydel power project in
			India
106.	Panchet Dam	Damodar	West Bengal

 

 

 

 

 

 

Thermal Power Projects in India

 

1.	Kothagundam Project	Singareni Coalfields	Andhra Pradesh
2.	Dhuraran Project	Kheda district	Gujarat
3.	Satpura Power Station		M.P.
4.	Korba Project		Chhattisgarh
5.	Talcher Power Station	Talcher	Orissa
6.	Obra Power Station	Obra	U.P.
7.	Bhusawal Power Station		Maharashtra
8.	Hardauganj Power Station		U.P.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9.

Bandel Power Station

West Bengal

10.

Chandrapura Power Station

Bihar

11.

Kolaghat Power Station

West Bengal

12.

Bakreshwar (Birbhum) Station

West Bengal

• Damodar Valley Project—- Damodar—– West Bengal & Jharkhand. It includes Maithon & Tilaiya Dam on Barakar river in Bihar, Konar Dam (Konar river) & Panchet Dam (Damodar).
• Rihand Dam —-Rihand —–Uttar Pradesh
• Nagarjunasagar Project —–Krishna—- Andhra Pradesh. Consists of two canals – Lal Bahadur Canal (Left) & Jawahar canal (Right).
• Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra JV of Andhra Pr & Karnataka.
• Gandak Project Gandak JV between UP, Bihar & Nepal
• Kosi Project Kosi JV of Bihar & Nepal
• Beas Project Beas Includes Pong Dam
• Mayurkashi Project Mayurkashi Mayurkashi is a tributary of Hugli.
• Indira Gandhi Canal It consists of Rajastan Feeder Canal (taking off from Harike Barrage, 204 km long, fully lined masonry canal) & Rajasthan main canal (445Km)
• Narmada Valley Project Involves Sardar Sarovar dam in Gujarat & Narmada sagar (or Indira Sagar) dam in M.P.
• Pochampad Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh.
• Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttaranchal. Implemented with Soviet Aid.Highest rock fall dam in the country.
• Parambikulam Project JV between Tamil Nadu & Kerala. Hydro-Electric Projects
• Mata Tella Dam Betwa Near Jhansi in U.P.
• Kangsbati Project West Bengal
• Rajasthan Canal Project Sutlej, Beas JV of Punjab & Rajastan. Ravi water is also used.
• Kadana Project Mahi Gujarat
• Tata Hydroelectric Scheme Indravati Maharashtra. Called Bhivpuri dam.
• Koyna Hydroelectic Dam Koyna Maharashtra
• Sivasamudram Cauvery Falls Karnataka
• Pykara Hydro Elec Project Pykara Tamil Nadu (along Nilgiris)
• Mettur Project Cauvery Tamil Nadu
• Papansam Scheme Tambraparni Tamil Nadu
• Sabargiri Hydel Project Pampa Kerala
• Idukki Project Periyar Kerala
• Sholayar Project Sholayar Kerala. JV between Kerala & Tamil Nadu
• Machkund Power Project Machkund Orissa. JV between A.P & Orissa
• Srisailam Power Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh
• Balimela Hydro Project Sileru river JV between A.P & Orissa
• Umiam Project Umiam Meghalaya
• Salal Hydro Project Chenab J & K
• Thein Dam Project Ravi Punjab
• Banasagar Project Son JV between MP, UP & Bihar
• Jayakwadi Project Godavari Maharashtra
• Kakrapara Project Tapi Gujarat
• Mahi Project Mahi Gujarat
• Malprabha Project Malprabha Karnataka
• Pallivasal project Mudirapujha Kerala
• Poochampad Godavari Andhra Pradesh
• Rajghat Dam Project Betwa
• Sarda Sahayak Ghagara Uttar Pradesh
• Hansdev Bango Project Hansdev M.P.
• Tawa Project Tawa M.P. Tawa is tributary of Narmada
• Ukai Project Tapi Gujarat
• Purna Project Purna Maharashtra
• Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)
• Jawahar Sagar Dam Chambal Rajasthan (Kota)
• Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal Churasigarh Fort at MP-Rajasthan border
• Chibro Tons Uttar Pradesh
• Dool Hasti Chenab J & K.
• Nathpa Jhakri Satluj Himachal Pr. Biggest hydel power project inIndia
• Panchet Dam Damodar West Bengal

 

Urban morphology is the study of the form of human settlements and the process of their formation and transformation.Morphological studies often deal with development of forms and
pattern of the present city or other urban areas through time.

Urban morphology is the study of the physical form of a city, which consists of street patterns, building sizes and shapes, architecture, Population density and patterns of residential, commercial, industrial and other uses, among other things. Special attention is given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities compare with each other.

India exhibits a very stable settlement structure such that much of the urban Growth that has occurred has been because of the accretion to existing towns and settlements and only marginally because of the emergence of new towns. As a result, the proportion of urban population residing in towns above a certain population cut-off point continues to increase, but there is little evidence of correlation between city size and rates of https://exam.pscnotes.com/population-growth”>Population Growth.

In other words we can state that the development of new urban centers in India has been minimal and the urban growth has been accredited to the development of existing centers.

Prof. E. Ahmad has identified some of the components of urban morphology as site characteristics, historical background, sky-line, green open spaces, and water bodies, physical and cultural dominants.

For the Census Of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows;

1. All places with a Municipality, corporation, Cantonment Board or notified town area committee, etc.
2. All other places which satisfied the following criteria: i) A minimum population of 5,000; ii) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

Urban centres of India are of 4 types:
1. Those that have grown from ancient town and villages e.g. Varansi, Madurai, Patna

2. Those that have grown from medieval towns such as Lucknow, Delhi, Jaipur. These towns have lot of features of medieval Islamic architecture with palaces, minarates, walled city with Meena bazaars.
3. Cities that have grown from the British administrative centres. Most of them were medieval towns or cantonment areas which retain lot of features of European Victorial architecture.
4. During the post independence period a number of planned cities have been developed. Chandigarh, Bhuvneshwar, Gandhinagar, Dispur and Bokaro are some of the typical examples of planned cities.

City is a complex agglomeration of multiple activities – economic, social, cultural, etc. Its ‘central area’ also known as Central Business District is its distinct section which is identified as the centre of Marketing, business and financial activities as well as dense built-up sector where lines of transportation converge from various parts and nearly from all direction.