Sikkim Geography Archives - Sikkim PCS Free Notes

Vegetation of Sikkim for Sikkim PSC

Vegetation of Sikkim

Sikkim provides a great variety of habitats, that support and sustains rich flora and fauna.
The Vegetation of Sikkim changes from tropical to subtropical upwards through middle hills with much coniferous and Oak forests of temperate character to the higher slopes with sub alpine scrub and alpine “meadows” generally related to higher alpine flora of the north temperate zone.
Sikkim has been known to be the most humid region in the whole range of Himalaya, because of its proximity to the Bay of Bengal and direct exposure to the south-west monsoon.
The annual rainfall ranges from 200 – 500 cm in most of its inner valleys except for its northern most region which receives scanty rainfall.
Throughout the year, but particularly from June to September, monsoon brings heavy rainfall to the state.
Lower hills and valleys enjoy a sub tropical climate, warm in winter, hot and extremely humid in summer.
Towards interior the climate becomes gradually more temperate.

Flowering Plants of Sikkim

Sikkim is one of the biodiversity rich states of our country.
The flowering plant diversity Sof the state with some indicative figures of dominant genera like Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Gentiana, Juncus, Pedicularis, Primula, Rhododendron and Swertia recorded from the region.
Nearly 165 species have been named after the state, as they were first collected from the state or plants were known to occur in Vegetation of Sikkim.
Some of the representative endemic species of the state have also been listed.
One hundred ninety seven families, 1371 genera have been appended with indicative number of species of each genus known to occur in Vegetation of Sikkim.
In all more than 4450 species of flowering plants recorded so far.

Biodiversity of Vegetation of Sikkim

India is recognized as one of the 12 mega diversity centres of the world. Out of the 18 Biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India owns 2, namely the Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas.
Sikkim covering just 0.2 % of the geographical area of the country has tremendous biodiversity and has been identified as one of the HOT-SPOT in the Eastern Himalayas.
There are 10 bio-geographic zones & 25 biotic provinces— which have 16 major forests types & > 200 sub types as per (Champion & Seth 1968).
Sikkim falls under Himalayan (2) Bio-geographic zone & Central Himalaya (2c) biotic province—-having about 9 types of forests types (Champion & Seth).
The State is endowed with rich floral and faunal diversity. Species wise, the State harbors over 4500 flowering plants, 550 Orchids, 36 Rhododendrons, 16 Conifers, 28 Bamboos, 362 Ferns and its allies, 9 Tree Ferns, 30 Primulas, 11 Oaks, over 424 Medicinal plants, 144+ mammals, 550 Birds, 48 Fishes and over 600 Butterflies.
While these figures are still not absolute, it may be kept in mind that this is only the mega-fauna and flora.
The tremendous diversity of insects like beetles and moths as well as a host of other life forms is yet to be enumerated.
Most of the high altitude medicinal plants are rare and endangered species.
Sikkim also has 28 Mountains/Peaks, more than 80 Glaciers, 227 high altitude lakes/wetlands and over 104 rivers and streams.
Nature has been particularly generous in her gift of sylvan treasures to the state of Sikkim.
Luxuriant forest, abound in all part of state and variety of medicinal plants, herbs, shrubs, bamboos and trees growing in state is truly rich.
In the forest, there are number of plants whose medicinal values have been well recognized by local people as well as by different pharmaceutical, insecticidal and perfumery sectors.
Medicinal plants ought to be given the status of a “National Resources” because their sustained availability is essential to sustain one of the world’s oldest medicinal traditions, a priceless legacy of the Indian people.
The local inhabitants for treatment of various ailments use numerous herbal remedies.
Modern medicines owes to the flora of these mountains.
Many inhabitants for treatment of various ailments use numerous herbal remedies.
Many species of Himalayan origin have revolutionized the allopathic systems of medicine

Forest and Forestry of Vegetation of Sikkim

Forest is one of the richest natural resources of Vegetation of Sikkim.
With luxuriant forest abounding in all part of state, Forestry has been the major land use in the State and 82.31% of the total geographical area of the State is under the administrative control of the State Forest Department.
The total forest and tree cover of the State is 3392 sq. km (47.80% of the total geographical area of the state).
The composition ranges from tropical Dry Deciduous Forests with Sal and its associates in the valleys of Teesta and Rangit to the Alpine Scrub and grassland in high altitude.

Forest Type of Vegetation of Sikkim


*S.No.*	*Groups*	*Characteristic of Species*	*Altitude (Mts)*	*Places*
1.	Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest
	Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest	1. Dillenia pentagyna 2. Dysoxylum floribundum 3. Gymnema arborea 4. Lagerostroemia patviflora 5. Shorea robusta 6. Toona ciliata	250-900	Rangpo Chhu, Sherwani, Jorethang, Rangit
2.	Sub-Tropical Forest
	Sub-Tropical Broad Leaved Forest	1. Albizia procera, 2. Alnus Nepalensis, 3. Bauhinia purpurea 4. Castanopsis indica, 5. Macaranga denticulate 6. Michelia champaca, 7. Schima wallichii	1000-2000	Tong,Gyalzing, Sangklang Selem Chakung Chhu.
	ii)Sub Tropical Pine forests	1. Pinus roxburghii, 2. Engelhardtia colebrookiana 3. Quercus leucotrichophora	1000-1800	Gangtok, Gyalzing, Rongli
3.	Montantane Wet Temperate Forest
	i)Temperate Broad Leaved Forests	1. Acer campbellii, 2. Engelhardtia spicata, 3. Machilus edulis, 4. Michelia cathcartii, 5. Quercus lamellose, 6. Taxus baccata	1700-2700	Chunthang- Lachung, Yumthang
	ii)Mixed Coniferous temperate forest Forest	1. Abies densa, 2. Acer campbellii, 3. Betula utiis, 4. Rhododendron, arboreum, 5. Abies densa, 6. Taxus baccata, 7. Tsuga dumosa, 8. Larix griffithianum	2700-3000	Lachen, Zemu, Yathang, Lachung
4.	Sub-Alpine Forest
	Sub-Alpine Forest	1. Abies densa, 2. Betula utiis 3. Casiope fastigata 4. Rhododendron sp.	Above 3000	Above Yathang
5.	Moist Alpine
	i) Birch- Rhododendron Scrub Forest	1. Betula utilis, 2. Sorbus foliolosa, 3. Rhododendron campanulatum,	Above 3600	Thangu, Maiminchu
	ii) Deciduous Alpine Scrub	1. Betula utilis, 2. Berberis sp., 3. Lonicera sp., 4. Rosa sp	3600-3900	Changu Thangu
	iii) Dwarf Rhododen ron Scrub	1. Rhododendron lepidotum	Above 3600	Thangu
	iv) Alpine pastures	1. Allium, 2. Anemone, 3. Delphinium	Above 4000	Chopta Yumasong
	b) Dry Alpine Scrub
	i) Dwarf Juniperous scrub	1. Juniperusrecurva 2. J. wallichiana	Above 3600	Chopta Chhangu
	ii) Dry alpine scrub	1. Ephedra gerardiana, 2. Meconopsis sp., 3. Ribes sp.	Above 4000	Chopta

Agriculture of Sikkim for Sikkim PSC

Agriculture of Sikkim

The economy of Sikkim is linked with Agriculture of Sikkim that serves as the source of livelihood and economic security of sizeable native population.
The growth, however, has been restricted because of biotic and abiotic factors.
It is estimated that over 80 per cent of the rural population depends on agriculture and allied sectors for economic, food, and nutritional security.
The agriculture systems practiced in Sikkim are integrated in natures that have evolved through years of experimentation by the farmers.
A marginal improvement in the lifestyle of the farmers has been witnessed with the adoption of modern technologies.
Sikkim State has some inherent strength that largely supports organic farming.
The policies and programmes on organic farming, in tune with our natural endowment envisage making Sikkim a Model Organic State.
The march towards organic farming has led to substantial departmental intervention.
A large number of initiatives have been taken by the Agriculture and Horticulture departments.

Area, Production and Productivity in Agriculture of Sikkim 2015-16

Crop	Area (000’ hectares)	Production (000’ tones)	Productivity (kg./ha)
Rice	10.67	19.69	1845.25
Wheat	0.32	0.35	1071.21
Maize	38.96	68.31	1753.56
Finger Millet	2.85	2.91	1020.33
Barley	0.45	0.47	1055.93
Buckwheat	3.57	3.47	972.27
Pulses	5.67	5.38	948.85
Oilseeds	6.94	6.31	909.75

Rice

Cultivation of rice requires hot and moist climate.
It is a Kharief crop and is sown in March-April and harvested in Autumn.
Sufficient water must cover the fields.
Temperature: Rice requires hot and humid conditions. The temperature should be fairly high i.e. 24°C mean monthly temperature with average temperature of 22°C to 32°C.
Rainfall: Rainfall ranging between 150-300 cm is suitable for its growth, where rainfall is less than 100 cm, rice is cultivated with the help of irrigation.
Soil: Rice is grown in varied soil conditions but deep clayey and loamy soil provides the ideal conditions.

Wheat

Wheat is another cereal crop of Sikkim growing in almost all villages of Sikkim having cool winter and hot summer climate, irrespective of elevation and irrigation facilities.
It is a rabi crop and its plant requires a cool and somewhat moist climate in the beginning and warm and dry weather at the harvest time.
The average rainfall should be between 50 to 70 cms. and that too at intervals.
It is sown in August and harvested in March, April.

Maize

Maize is one of the most important cereal crops of Agriculture of Sikkim.
It is grown over an area of about 36,000-40,000 hectare which is about 35-40% of total cultivable area.
It requires hot dry climate.
Rainfall required for maize varies from 75 cms to 125 cms.
It is sown in May-July and harvested in August-November.

Oil- seed

Rape Seed, Mustard, linseed, sesamum, toria, cottonseed are the chief varieties of oil-seeds.
They require hot and moist climate.

Barley

Barley is a minor rabi cereal crop of Sikkim grown only in small pockets over an area of about 1.15 thousand hectare.
The production of barley is subjected by systematic implementation of Agronomic Practices as well as crop improvement work including introduction and Acclimatization of high yielding varieties.

Tuber crops, spices, fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants

Tuber Crops: Potato,Sweet Potata
Spices: Large Cardamom, Ginger, Chilli, Turmeric, Coriander
Fruits: Mandarin, Passion fruit, Banana, Guava, Papaya, Jack fruit, Litchi
Vegetables: Brocoli, Onion, Brinjal, Carrot, Iskus, Pumpkin, Radish, Tomato, Tree Tomato, Cabbage, Cauli flower
Ornamental Plants: Anthurium, Cymbidium, Rose

Important Organic Cash Crops of Agriculture of Sikkim

Important organically grown cash crops of the state are oranges, large cardomom, ginger, turmeric, cherry paper, baby corn, buck heat, pulses etc.
All these organic crops have a high demand in domestic and international markets.

SIKKIM MANDARIN ORANGE

Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) is the most common among citrus fruits grown in India.
It occupies nearly 50% of the total citrus area in India.
Mandatrin group includes all types of loose jacket oranges commonly called Santra or mandarin such as Nagpur Santra, Coorg Santra, Khasi Mandarin, Sikkim Mandarin etc.
Sikkim mandarin represents the most important commercial fruit of Sikkim and is similar to the Nepal or Assam or Darjeeling mandarin.

TURMERIC

The Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is an important spice used conventionally as a natural food colorant and as an additive for imparting to food orange-yellow colour, flavor and aroma.
It is also valued as an antiseptic for its anti-inflammatory property and is used in beauty treatment or in the cosmetic industry and dye plants.
It is the most researched spice for medicinal use and occupy prominent place in traditional medicine system for treatment of cough, flu, anemia, asthma, sprain and pain, skin diseases, sinus etc. It is loaded with antioxidant properties.
It is propagated through tuberous seed rhizome. Its cultivation in unutilized areas and forest areas as well as in cultivated land is gaining popularity in the state in recent years, especially in niche areas having an altitude of 3000 ft amsl and less.
With similar cultivation practices as that of ginger, turmeric is grown both as pure crop as well as mixed with maize, chilly, bean, vegetable etc under both rainfed and irrigated conditions.
Small and marginal farmers in the state take up the crop in small operational holdings with cultivation of the crop contributing to generation of income as well as in promotion of livelihood of farmers in the state

BUCK WHEAT

The area and production of this crop in Sikkim are 2760 hectares and 1,380 tonnes respectively.
It is widely grown in the hilly tracts of the Sikkim.
In recent years, the area and production has gone up considerably.
It is now considered a cash crop fetching even higher price than rice.
As a result, it is not only grown on slopy dry land but also as a chief rotational crop between paddy and maize in Sikkim.
The crop is grown right from 300 m to 2,500 m in the hills.

BABY CORN

Baby Corn cultivation is a recent development in Sikkim.
Major motive behind popularization of the crop is to increase the economic condition of farmers.
The potential of growing the crop in the state is visualized from the production and productivity of maize.
Thought less remunerative, maize is the only crop in Sikkim which is successfully grown in approximately 39000 ha area across different agroecological condition.

GINGER

Ginger is cultivated in Sikkim since time immemorial.
It is also used for religious purpose by Limboo Phedangma and Rai Bijuwas which shows its attachment with the people of Sikkim from ancient period.
Its commercial value has been recently exploited due to sudden price hike in market.
Now, it is grown as one of the important cash crops of Sikkim below 1,500 m amsl occupying a considerable area.
The important ginger-growing areas are:

Mangalbaria, Chakung, Tharpu, Gyalshing, Zoom in West district;
Turuk, Sumbuk, Rateypani, Namthang, Mellidara, Maniram, Namchi and Temi-Tarku in South district;
Rhenock, Rongli, Pakyong, Rorathang, Khamdong, Pendam, Sirwani and Rangpo in East district and in small pockets of North district.

The important markets of ginger are Melli, Gyalshing, Rangpo, Singtam, Nayabazar and Resh.

LARGE CARDAMOM

It is a native crop of Agriculture of Sikkim.
The presence of wild species, locally known as ‘Churumpa’ like Amomum aromaticum, A. dealbatum, A. Kingir, A. corynostachyum, A. Lingiforme etc. and tremendous variability within the cultivated species in Sikkim support the view of its origin.
It is the most important revenue earning crop of Agriculture of Sikkim.
The dried capsules are marketed at Amritsar,Delhi, Kanpur, Kolkata and Lucknow for further distribution.
Large cardamom is also cultivated in parts of Uttarakhand and in some other North-Eastern States.
Nepal and Bhutan are other countries where large cardamom is cultivate.

Salient Features of India/Agriculture of Sikkim

Subsistence Agriculture of Sikkim: Most parts of India have subsistence agriculture. This type of agriculture has been practised in India for several hundreds of years and still prevails in a larger part of India in spite of the large scale change in agricultural practices after independence.
Pressure of population on Agriculture of Sikkim: Despite increase in urbanization and industrialization, about 70% of population is still directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture.
Mechanization of farming of Agriculture of Sikkim: Green Revolution took place in India in the late sixties and early seventies. After more than forty years of Green Revolution and revolution in agricultural machinery and equipments, complete mechanization is still a distant dream
Dependence upon monsoon: Since independence, there has been a rapid expansion of irrigation infrastructure. Despite the large scale expansion, only about one third of total cropped area is irrigated today. As a consequence, two third of cropped areas is still dependent upon monsoon. Monsoon in India is uncertain and unreliable. This has become even more unreliable due to change in climate.
Variety of crops Agriculture of Sikkim: India has diversity of topography, climate and soil. Since India has both tropical and temperate climate, crops of both the climate are found in India. There are very few countries in the world that have variety comparable to that of India..
Predominance of food crops of Agriculture of Sikkim: Since Indian agriculture has to feed a large population, production of food crops is the first priority of the farmers almost everywhere in the country. However, in recent years, there has been a decline in the share of land used for food crops due to various other commercially most advantageous uses of this land.
Seasonal patterns of Agriculture of Sikkim: India has three distinct agricultural/cropping seasons. You might have heard about kharif, rabi and zaid. In India there are specific crops grown in these three seasons. For example rice is a kharif crop whereas wheat is a rabi crop.

Challenges are faced by farmers

Farmers of our country are facing lot of problems regarding agricultural production of crop. Few of them are shortlisted below:

Uncertain weather
Uneven water availability
Lesser yield
Low quality crops
Lack of soil nutrients
Buyer’s monopoly
Less cash in hand
Less scientific guidance during agricultural
Less information regarding selection of crop seed
Inadequate information of plant root moisture holding capacity
Less information of scientific irrigation process for maximum yield
Less aware of the market and growing technology

Drainage system and River of Sikkim

Drainage system and River of Sikkim

Sikkim is a small Himalayan state in north-east India situated between 27degree 00’ 46″ to 28 degree 07’ 48″ N latitude and 88 degree 00’ 58″ to 88 degree 55’ 25″E longitude with geographical area of 7,096 sq km constituting only 0.22% of total geographical area of India.
It has a human population of 5,40,493 as per Census, 2001, which constitutes only 0.05% of India’s total population.
The state is somewhat rectangular in shape with maximum length from north to south of about 112 km and maximum width of 90 km from east to west.
Sikkim is bounded in the north by the Tibetan plateau, by China (Tibet) on the northeast, by Pangola range of Bhutan on the southeast, by Darjeeling district of West Bengal on the south and Singalila range and Mt. Khangchendzonga on the west and northwest.
Entire state of Sikkim constitutes upper basin of Teesta river except for a small area of 75.62 sq km in extreme southeast that of Jaldhaka river, which originates in East Sikkim and flows through West Bengal parallel to Teesta river to meet Brahmaputra river.
In southernmost part of Sikkim, Teesta river flows in southwest direction and defines the inter-state boundary between Sikkim and West Bengal up to Melli Bazar where it is joined by Rangit river which drains West Sikkim district.
Rangit river, the largest tributary of Teesta river in Sikkim, from Naya Bazar point flows in southeast direction and marks the interstate boundary between Sikkim and West Bengal in the southwest.

Teesta River

One of the rivers that almost flow right across the length of Sikkim is the Teesta.
It’s major tributary is the Rangeet which originates from the Rathong Glacier, meets it at the border between Sikkim and West Bengal.
Teesta originates from the Cholamu lake where Teesta is hardly a stream.
No one can imagine that this innocuous looking stream would transform into a thundering mighty river less than a hundred kilometers downstream.
The source of the Teesta is the pristine Tso Lhamu Lake in North Sikkim, some 5,300 metres above sea level.
The glacial waters then move downwards to meet Zemu Chu just above Lachen village and then rushing down deep gorges it meets Lhachung Chu at Chungthang.
At Mangan, the river is joined by the Talung Chu as it continues its journey down, finally reaching Singtam in East Sikkim, becoming slower and widening to almost double its width.
Further down at Melli, the Teesta merges with the river Rangeet which is born of the Rathong glacier in West Sikkim, before entering the plains of North Bengal and eventually joining Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.
During monsoons the otherwise innocuous looking rivers of Sikkim become swollen, swift, muddy and dangerous.
The rivers are narrow, serpentine and full of rocks and hence are not navigable.
Because of swift currents hitting rocks, the rivers are very noisy and can be heard for miles together.
The Teesta finally joins the Bhramaputra in Bangladesh.
The rivers are fed by snow melting on the mountains as well as rain that accumulates in the catchment areas during the monsoons.
Human settlements usually must exist above the level of rivers and hence even if flooding takes place life and property remain safe.

The Rangeet or Rangit

It is a tributary of the Teesta river, which is the largest river in the Indian state of Sikkim.
The Rangeet river originates in the Himalayanmountains in West Sikkim The river also forms the boundary between Sikkim and Darjeeling district.
A perennial river, it is fed by the melting snow of the Himalayas in early summer and the monsoonrains in June–September.
It is popular among rafting enthusiasts owing to its turbulent waters.
The river flows past the towns of Jorethang, Pellingand Legship.
During its final few kilometres, it joins the TeestaRiver at a confluence known as Tribeni, which is a popular picnic spot.
The Rangeet River has an NHPChydropower plant with the capacity of 60 megawatts (80,000 hp) capacity in Sikkim.

River Rangpo

It is a river in the Indian state of Sikkim.
A tributary of the Teesta River, it is fed by the Rangpo chu.
The town of Rangpo in Sikkim lies on River Rangpo north bank.
The river forms the border between Sikkim and West Bengal states at Rangpo town.
There is no separate name for the town in West Bengal that lies on south bank of the river and therefore it is also called Rangpo.
The river runs through most of East Sikkim and a few parts of the Darjeeling District of North Bengal.
This tributary flows mainly from east to west with a variable channel pattern including braided, meandering, straight, gorge and blocked lake.
Landslides are very common along the river bank as cliff-like bedrocks are considerably exposed along the river valley wall.
Its confluence with Teesta River is immediately downstream of Rangpo town.

The Talung River

It is an east-south east flowing river in the North Sikim Himalayas.
It originates at the Talung-Tonsyong Glacier’s confluenceat the meeting point of Talung and Tongshiong River & then flows east south east to meet the River Teesta near Singhik, North Sikkim of India.
The upper catchment is fed by a number of streams and rivulets.
These streams & rivulets flow from the southern part of Simvu-Sinialchu region to meet the main river.
Another tributary which feeds the main stream flows from the Zorpetam mountain valley.
Zorepetam valley is a typical inaccessible mountain terrain in the east of Pandim and Tinchenkhang.
Number of River of Sikkim originates from this region.
Owing to the complexity of the river systems its name in its catchment area changes from place to place.
According to records it is Rukel Chu at first, then Rungayang or Rongyoung Chu and thereafter Talung River or Tholung Chu till its confluence

The Jaldhaka River

It is also known as Dichu River in earlier times, is a trans-boundary river with a length of 192 kilometres that originates from the Kupup or Bitang Lake in southeastern Sikkim in the eastern Himalayas and flows through Bhutan and the Kalimpong, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts of West Bengal, India.
At that point the river enters Bangladesh through the Lalmonirhat District and then joins with the Dharla River until the Dharla debouches into the Brahmaputra River near the Kurigram District.
Due to the river’s wandering over several international borders, only a small length of the river lies within Bangladesh

The Lachen River

It is a tributary of the Teesta River in the state of Sikkim, India.
It is one of the two main tributaries of the Teesta along with the Lachung River, which rise on opposite sides of the Donga Rangein neighbouring Bhutan and converge in Chungthang in the North Sikkim district.

The Lachung River

Itis a tributary of the Teesta River located in the North Indian state of Sikkim.
It is a chief tributary of the Teesta, which is an important river in Sikkim along with Rangeet River.
The village of Lachungis perched on the craggy bank of the river approximately 23 kilometres from Chungthang. It is at Chungthang where the Lachung and Lachen rivers converge and give rise to the Teesta.
The river is 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) above sea level.

Drainage systems

Drainage systems, also known as river systems, are the patterns formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin. They are governed by the topography of the land, whether a particular region is dominated by hard or soft rocks, and the gradient of the land.

Teesta River Basin Information

The river Teesta is one of the main Himalayan rivers and originates from the glaciers of Sikkim in North at an elevation of about 5,280 m.
The river rises in mountainous terrain in extreme north as Chhombo Chhu, which flows eastward and then southward to be joined by Zemu Chhu, upstream of Lachen village near Zema.
The river takes a gentle turn in southeast direction and meets Lachung Chhu at Chungthang where it takes the form of a mighty Himalayan river.
Teesta, therefore, is the main river of the state with its several tributaries viz. Zemu Chhu, Lachung Chhu, Rangyong Chhu, Dik Chhu, Rani Khola, Rangpo Chhu and Rangit river and constitutes an extremely important resource of the state.
After the confluence of Teesta river and Lachung Chhu at Chungthang, the river gradually widens and takes a strong westward turn upstream of Tong and after flowing down to Singhik, the river drops from 1,550 m to 750 m.
At Singhik, the river receives one of its major tributaries, Rangyong Chhu on its right bank, which originates from the Talung glacier, a part of the Khangchendzonga mountain range.
From Singhik, the river flows southwards to Dikchu with a 200 m drop through a very deep valley for about 30 km.
From Dikchu onwards, the river takes many sharp and wide curves and flows down to Singtam with a further drop of about 200m.
Rangpo Chhu, which drains the Chhangu lake area in East Sikkim joins Teesta river on its left bank at Rangpo. Downstream of Rangpo, Teesta river widens and is joined by Rangit river at Melli Bazar on Sikkim-West Bengal border.
From Melli Bazar downstream, the river leaves the hilly terrain and enters the plains of West Bengal at Sevoke near Siliguri. Teesta river ultimately drains into Brahmaputra at Teestamukh Ghat (Kamarjani-Bahadurabad in Rangpu district of Bangladesh) and traverses a distance of about 400 km from its origin.
Teesta and most of its tributaries are flashy mountain rivers and carry boulders and considerable quantity of sediment. The flow is turbulent and characterised by high velocities.
Throughout its course in Sikkim, Teesta and its tributaries flow in very narrow and deep valleys having precipitous hill slopes, except where the tributaries join the main stream.
The hill slopes are mostly friable and landslips are very common throughout the basin.

WATERSHEDS OF TEESTA BASIN IN SIKKIM

The main Teesta while flowing from north to south divides the state into two parts.
Teesta drainage basin in Sikkim cover an area of 7,020.38 sq km of Sikkim and 75.32 sq km of the state is under Jaldhaka river watershed, which is not the part of Teesta basin. In order to understand the profile and behaviour of the prominent tributaries of Teesta river basin in Sikkim, Teesta basin was divided into its major tributary watersheds.
The entire Teesta basin falling in Sikkim has been delineated into 17 watersheds following the conventional methodology of delineation based upon drainage order classification.
For this Survey of India toposheets at 1:50,000 scale were used, with ridge line demarcating the boundaries between adjacent watersheds.
These watersheds vary in size and shape depending upon the drainage pattern in a particular watershed.

Soils of Sikkim for Sikkim PSC

Soils of Sikkim

Sikkim is a small, extremely mountainous state in the Indian Himalayas with sharply defined and extremely steep watersheds.
Although, Sikkim is only about forty miles in width and seventy miles in length, its altitude escalates rapidly from about 300 m above mean sea level in the South to about 8583 m along the Himalayan Kanchenjunga range.
Agriculture is mostly concentrated in the lower mountain ranges, primarily in the East and South Districts.
Nomadic high-altitude Legend 6 livestock herding (primarily goats, sheep and yaks) is found along the borders of Nepal, Bhutan and in the North District approaching the Tibetan Plateau.

Different Series Soil in Scheme (Deep Analysis)

Markong Series (M):

It comprises moderately deep, well-drained loamy skeletal soil with dark brown to dark reddish brown colour.
They have been developed on mica schists.
This soil occurs on strongly sloping (10-15%) hill top with moderate to severe erosion. Soils are under moderately dense forest and pasture land.
The Markong Series is tentatively classified as a member of loamy skeletal mixed thermic family of Topic Haplumbrepts.

Putuli Series (p):

It comprises shallow excessively drained dark brown loamy skeletal soil having some rock particles scattered over the surface.
These are developed on micaceous gneissic parent rock of talus deposits.
These Soils of Sikkim occur on moderately sloping and very steep upper hill slopes.
They are moderately to severely eroded and are susceptible to landslides.

Lingtse Series (L):

It comprises very deep, moderately well-drained fine loamy Soils of Sikkim with dark grayish brown to dark brown colour.
They have been developed on gneissic parent rock. These soils occur on steep low hill slopes and moderately eroded.
The Soils of Sikkim are under terraced cultivation.
The Lingtse Series is tentatively classified as a member of fine loamy mixed thermic family of Typic Dystrochrepts.

Thekabong Series (T):

It comprises moderately deep, moderately well drained loamy skeletal Soils of Sikkim with dark grayish brown in colour.
They have developed on micaceous gneissic parent rock.
These Soils of Sikkim occur in the steep to very steep middle and lower slopes of hill.
Soils of Sikkim are bench terraced for cultivation.
The Soils of Sikkim are moderately eroded and susceptible to severe erosion.

Machong Series (MA):

It comprises moderately deep moderately well-drained, grayish brown fine loamy soils.
They have been formed from the underlain micaschists.
These Soils of Sikkim occur on the moderately steep to steep low hill slopes and piedmont.
The Soils of Sikkim are under terraced cultivation.
Erosion is moderate to severe.

Chatrikhola Series (C):

It comprises deep, moderately well-drained fine loamy soils with very dark grayish brown to dark brown colour.
They are developed on micaceous gneiss parent rock.
These Soils of Sikkim occur on steep to very mid slope of low hill slopes and rare moderately to severely eroded.

Gompa Series (G):

It comprises shallow excessively drained loamy skeletal soils within brown to dark brown colour.
They have been developed on gneissic parent rock.
This soil occurs on moderately sloping and steep to very steep escarpments.
The Soils of Sikkim are under severe to very severe erosion and are susceptible to sliding.

Losep Series (LO):

It comprises deep, moderately well-drained, loamy skeletal soils with grayish brown to yellowish brown colour.
They have been developed on colluvial material over gneissic parent rock.
These Soils of Sikkim occur on steep lower slopes of hills and are moderately to severely eroded.

Namthang Series:

It comprises deep, well-drained, loamy skeletal soils with brown to dark yellowish brown colour developed from phyllite parent rock occurring on moderately sloping to strongly sloping mid hill slopes and are moderately eroded.
Soils of Sikkim are under paddy cultivation.

Simikara Series:

It comprises moderately deep excessively drained coarse loamy, fragmental Soils of Sikkim with yellowish brown to light olive brown colour and developed on micaschist parent rock.
This soil occurs on very steep escarpment slope and is severely eroded. Soils are under dense forest.

Nandugaon Series:

It comprises well-drained coarse loamy, fragmental soils with brown to dark brown colour, developed from sandstone parent rock.
The soil occurs on steeply sloping mid and upper part of hills are severely eroded.
Soils of Sikkim are under predominantly cultivation maize.

Hilly Series:

It comprises very deep moderately well-drained fine loamy soils with dark reddish brown to reddish brown colour developed on gneissic parent material.
The soil occurs on steeply sloping upper hill slope and is moderately eroded.
Soils of Sikkim are under cultivation.

Padamchen Series:

It comprises moderately deep, moderately well-drained, fine loamy soils with brown to yellowish brown colour and developed from gneissic parent material.
This soil occurs on moderately steep to upper hill slope with severe erosion under thin forest vegetation.

Taraku Series:

It comprises very deep, moderately well-drained fine loamy soils with brown to dark colour developed on sand stones.
Soils of Sikkim occur on moderately steep to steep upper and midhill slopes and are moderately eroded.
Soils of Sikkim are under horticultural crops.

Majitar Series:

It comprises deep, well-drained loamy soils with grayish brown to light gray colour.
They are of alluvial and collurial origin.
This soil occurs on gently sloping to moderately sloping uplifted river terraces and is susceptible for river bank erosion and flooding.
Soils of Sikkim are under horticultural crops

Climate of Sikkim for Sikkim PSC

Climate of Sikkim

The Climate of Sikkim is extremely varied largely due to variation in altitude.
It has the Himalayan or high mountain type of climate.
Altitude is the most important factor controlling the climate and weather condition here.
Relief features such as high mountains act as the barriers for the movements of monsoon winds.
Low temperature, high rainfall on windward slopes, comparatively dry on the leeward side and heavy precipitation in the form of snow at the mountain top are the main features of the Climate of Sikkim.
Due to great variation in sharp edged mountains throughout the state, there is large variation in rainfall and temperature.
The Himalayas act as barrier to monsoon winds forcing them to ascend thereby causing orographic rainfall and snow fall.
The Himalayas also act as barrier to the flow of cold winds from Central Asia, resulting heavy snowfall on the mountain tops and higher elevations and dry winter season at lower elevation located at the leeward side.
The monsoon winds dominate the Climate of Sikkim.
There is seasonal reversal of winds almost throughout the Climate of Sikkim.
The monsoon imposes the seasonal rhythm which is apparent in the activities of the people since most of them are agriculturists.
The following four seasons are prevalent on the basis of the monsoon circulation over the state.

The cold weather season – December to February
The spring weather season – March to May
The south-west monsoon – June to September
The period of retreating monsoon – October to November

Rainfall and temperature of Climate of Sikkim

The mean annual rainfall varies from 2000 mm. to 4000 mm. with intensity of rain from drizzling showers in lower altitude to torrential rains in higher altitude.
There are two maximum rainfall areas (i) South-East region and (ii) South-West region.
There is an area in the North-West region which gets very little rainfall.
The greater part of rain fall is received during May to September.
The annual rainfall of Sikkim is 2739 mm.
The temperature varies with the altitude and slope aspect.
The mean temperature in the lower altitudinal zone, it varies from 1.5 degree centigrade to 9.5 degree centigrade.
The maximum temperature is usually recorded during July-August which varies from 21 Degree Celsius to 26 Degree Celsius and minimum during December-January between 6 Degree Celsius and 8 Degree Celsius.
Fog is a common feature in the entire state from May to September.
Biting cold is experienced at high altitude places in the winter months and snowfall is also not uncommon during this period.
Climatic factors are entirely influenced by altitude.

*S. No.*	*Station*	*Maximum Temperature (Degree Centigrade)*	*Minimum Temperature* *(Degree Centigrade)*	*Rainfall (millimeter)*
1	Gangtok	18.8	12.7	3589.5
2	Mangan	25.5	15.3	3244.1
3	Mazitar	29.4	17.3	1620.2
4	Namthang	32.1	14.0	1972.0

Climatic types in Climate of Sikkim

Snow Peak Type:

This climate conforms to altitude of 4001 meters or more above the mean sea level.
The mountain peaks are mostly covered by snow. Precipitation is mainly through snowfall.
Cultivable land is not available in this climatic type.
Vegetation is mainly herbs or medicinal herbs.

Densely forested hill type:

These climatic conditions are found between 2701 metres and 4000 metres above the mean sea level.
The land has dense vegetation with tall trees and variety of rhododendron and primula flowers.
It is mostly covered by snow during winter season and precipitation is through snow and heavy rainfall during summer.
Winter is extremely cold. Potato and cabbage are cultivated during summer months at Thangu, Lachen and Lachung in North District.

Very high hill type:

Such climatic conditions are associated with the height between 1701 metres and 2700 metres above the mean sea level.
Snow fall is common during winter months, i.e. December to February and heavy rainfall during June-July.
This climate is suitable for seed potato growing. Other alternative crops are temperate fruit plants cabbage, peas, radish and other vegetables.
Soyabeans, high altitude maize and off season cabbage cultivation is common.
Lachen, Lachung, Ravongla, Damthang, Phadamchen, Zuluk, Okhrey, Hilley, Bhareng and Ribdi are the important areas in this climatic type.

High hill type:

The climate between 1501 metres and 1700 metres above the mean sea level falls under this category.
Precipitation is mainly through rainfall.
This is essentially a large cardamom growing belt.
Other important crops of the zone are the maize, peas, millets, vegetables etc. Usually, this is essentially a dry weather with occasional drizzling in winter and heavy rainfalls in summer.

Mid hill type:

Such climate is found between 881 metres and 1500 metres above the mean sea level.
This is essentially an orange belt, most suited for cultivation of orange.
Winters are cold and dry without any rain and summers with heavy rainfall.
The other crops are the maize, paddy, oilseeds, pulses, large cardamom, ginger and vegetables etc.

Low hill type:

The climate between 300 to 880 metres above the mean sea level may be called low hill type.
This climate is essentially a sub-tropical type and suitable for cultivation of sub-tropical fruits such as banana, guava, lemon and lime etc.
Most of the area is under paddy cultivation. Other important crops are maize, pulses, oilseeds, ginger and vegetables.
The winters are dry and comparatively warm and the summer are hot and have comparatively less rainfall.
Thus the Climate of Sikkim and the seasons of Sikkim state are suitable for growing varieties of crops which include not only cereals but also commercial crops.
Paddy, maize, millets, pulses are the principal crops and large cardamom, potato, ginger and other horticultural crops are the cash crops.
Orange is also a commercial fruits of Sikkim

Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Livestock sector in Sikkim is highly livelihood intensive, agriculture along with livestock is the single largest employer in the state, over 80 per cent of the rural households in the state own livestock and earn supplementary incomes from them, distribution of livestock holdings is less iniquitous – over 85 per cent of all species of livestock are owned by the marginal and small holders.
For this reason, income from livestock is more equitably distributed. Livestock sector contribution to Sikkim’s Gross Domestic Product in 2002 was over 6 per cent.
In the Sikkim context, livestock has immense potential for diversification in agriculture, offering gainful employment and incremental incomes to tens of thousands of landless, marginal and small farmers.

Livestock wealth of Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Livestock production in Sikkim is predominantly the endeavour of the small producers.
Marginal and small farmers own nearly 85 per cent of all species of livestock and poultry, even though they own or operate less than 55 per cent of the farmland in Sikkim.
Even the tiny organised poultry industry in Sikkim is made up of small broiler farms.
Over 80 per cent of all rural households own livestock (often a mix of several species) as part of the traditional mixed crop-livestock farming system: earning substantial incomes and enriching family diets with nutrient rich animal products.

Contribution of livestock to Sikkim economy

Contribution of LS to State economy- 8.16%GSDP
- Employment in LS 4.5% growth rate per annum
- Milk is the second largest agriculture produce next to maize
- 70 % main workforce
The Sikkim LSRE Sector Analysis however shows that over 60 per cent of the rural household income in Sikkim comes from livestock farming.

NEW LIVESTOCK SECTOR POLICY (GOALS)

On the basis of the detailed Sector Analysis carried out by the State Livestock Review Exercise in 2003-04, and in the light of the facts placed above, it appears that the following will be the most appropriate policy considerations for the growth of livestock sector in Animal husbandry of Sikkim:

Use the livestock sector as a growth engine for the social and economic development of the rural population, increasing rural selfemployment opportunities, enabling steady growth of rural household income and improved quality of life in the Sikkim villages.
Enable the small producers to actively participate in the process of development by equipping them with appropriate skills and technologies to transform the growing challenges of the market place into opportunities to build comparative and competitive advantages through improved livestock quality and higher productivity.
Ensure the ecological and environmental sustainability of the livestock sector growth and modernisation; constantly monitoring the environmental impact of the growth process and designing policies and programmes to effectively mitigate their adverse impact

Department of Animal Husbandry Livestock, Fisheries and Veterinary Services, Government of Sikkim

Main Objectives:

Major objectives and strategies followed for livestock development during the years are as under:

Expand and strengthen infrastructure for artificial insemination, which improve its efficiency and effectiveness using frozen semen technology for crossbreeding purposes.
Create a seed stock of qualitatively superior bulls, which would form the nucleus germ-plasm pool to build milch herd of high production cattle.
Bring about genetic improvement of important livestock breeds through selective breeding and crossbreeding of low production non-descript stock, both for milk and for draught purposes. Steps are taken to conserve important indigenous breeds of the State.
Establish linkage between rural milk producers and urban consumers by replicating the “Anand Pattern” dairy cooperatives in the State and lessen the adverse impact of seasonal imbalances in milk production and marketing.
Improve the productivity of pasture lands by introducing improve fodder seeds and increased use of wasteland for fodder production.
Optimise the use of crop residue through provision of appropriate supplements and conservation of green fodder.
Promote stall-feeding in order to reduce overgrazing and degradation of village grazing lands.
Develop adequate animal health services for protection of livestock, with special emphasis on eradication of most prevalent diseases in the State
Explore the marketing avenues for sale of livestock products like wool, meat, eggs and day old chicks, cheese and utilize by-products of slaughter waste as well as to find export-oriented programmes of the State livestock products.

Goat Farming of Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Goat is known as ‘Poor man’s cow’ in India and is a very important component in dry land farming system.
Marginal or undulating lands unsuitable for other types of animals like cow or buffalo, goat is the best alternative.
With very low investments goat rearing can be made in to a profitable venture for small and marginal farmers.

Sheep farming of Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Few countries in the world have no sheep.
They are found in tropical countries and in the arctic, in hot climates and in the cold, on the desert and in humid areas.
There are over 800 breeds of sheep in the world, in a variety of sizes, shapes, types and colours.
Sheep were domesticated long before the dawn of recorded history.
Wool fibres have been found in remains of primitive villages of Switzerland that date back an estimated 20000 years.
Egyptian sculpture dating 4000-5000 B.C. portrays the importance of this species to people.
Much mention is made in the Bible of flocks, shepherds, sacrificial lambs, and garments made of wool.
The Roman empire prized sheep, anointed them with special oils, and combed their fleece to produce fine quality fibres that were woven into fabric for the togas of the elite.
Perhaps the first ruminants domesticated by man along with goats, sheep are a very valuable and important asset to mankind.
Domesticated sheep : phylum Chordata (backbone), class Mammalia (suckle their young), order Artiodactyla (hooved, even-toed), family Bovidae(ruminants), genus Ovis (domestic and wild sheep), and species Ovisaries

Emu rearing

Emus belong to ratite group and have high economic value for their meat, eggs, oil, skin and feathers.
These birds are adaptable to varied climatic conditions.
Although emu and ostrich were introduced in India, emu farming has gained much importance.
Ratite birds have poorly developed wings and include emu, ostrich, rhea, cassowary and kiwi.
Emu and ostrich are reared commercially in many parts of the world for their meat, oil, skin and feathers, which are of high economic value.
The anatomical and physiological features of these birds appear to be suitable for temperate and tropical climatic conditions.
These birds can be well maintained on extensive (ranches) and semi intensive rearing systems with reasonably high fibrous diets.
United State, Australia and China are leading in emu farming. Emu birds are well adapted to Indian climatic conditions.

Features of Emu

Emu has long neck, relatively small naked head, three toes and body covered with feathers Birds initially have longitudinal stripes on body (0-3 months age) then gradually turn to brown by 4-12 months age.
Mature birds have bare blue neck and mottled body feathers. Adult bird height is about 6 feet with a weight of 45-60 kg. Legs are long covered with scaly skin adaptable to hardy and dry soil.
Natural food of emu is insects, tender leaves of plant and forages. It also eats different kinds of vegetables and fruits like carrot, cucumber, papaya etc. Female is the larger of the two, especially during breeding season when the male may fast.
The female is the dominant member of the pair.
Emus live for about 30 years.
It may produce eggs for more than 16 years.
Birds can be maintained as flock or pair.

Rabbit Farming of Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Why Rabbit Farming?

With available small investment and in a small place rabbit farming gives more income
Rabbits eat ordinary feed and convert them into a protein rich high quality meat
Apart from meat production they can also be reared for hide and fur.

Rabbit Farming is for whom?

For landless farmers, uneducated youth and women, rabbit farming gives an additional income as a part time job

Advantages of Rabbit Farming of Animal husbandry of Sikkim

By rabbit rearing one can produce a quality protein rich meat for his own family
Rabbits can be fed with easily available leaves, waste vegetables, grains available in the home
Growth rate in broiler rabbits is very high. They attain 2 kgs at the age of three months
Litter size (Number of young ones born/ kindling) in rabbits is high (around 8-12)
When compared to the other meats rabbit meat contain high protein (21%) and less fat (8%). So this meat is suitable for all age groups from adults to children

Quail Farming of Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Advantages of quail farming

Requires minimum floor space
Needs low investment
Quails are comparatively sturdy birds
Can be marketed at an early age ie. five weeks
Early sexual maturity – starts laying eggs in about six to seven weeks of age
High rate of egg laying -280 eggs per year
Quail meat is tastier than chicken and has less fat content. It promotes body and brain development in children.
Nutritionally, the quail eggs are on par with that of chicken eggs. Moreover, they contain less cholesterol.
Quail meat and eggs are a nutritious diet for pregnant and nursing mothers.

Turkey farming of Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Breeds of turkeys in India

The varieties are as follows

Board breasted bronze:The basic plumage color is black and not bronze. The females have black breast feathers with white tips, which help in sex determination as early as 12 weeks of age.
Board breasted white:This is a cross between Board breasted bronze and White Holland with white feathers. White plumage turkeys seems to be suitable Indian-Agro climatic conditions as they have better heat tolerance and also good and clean in appearance after dressing.
Beltsville small white: It closely resembles the Board breasted white in color and shape but smaller in size. Egg production, fertility and hatchability tend to be higher and broodiness tends to be lower than heavy varieties.
Nandanam turkey 1: This variety is a cross between the black desi variety and exotic Beltsville small white variety. It is suited for Tamil Nadu climatic conditions

Marketing of turkeys

The body weight of adult male and adult female turkey at the 16th week is 7.26 kg and 5.53kg. This is optimum weight for marketing the turkeys.

Turkey egg:

The turkey will start lay from the 30th week of age and its production period is 24 weeks from the point of lay.
Under proper feeding and artificial lightening management turkey hens lay as much as 60-100 eggs annually.
Nearly 70 percent of the eggs will be laid in the afternoon.
The turkey eggs are tinted and weigh about 85 gms.
Egg is noticeably pointed at one end with strong shell.
The protein, lipid carbohydrate and mineral content of turkey egg are 13.1%, 11.8%, 1.7% and 0.8% respectively. The cholesterol is 15.67-23.97 mg/gm of yolk

Turkey meat:

People prefer turkey meat because of its leanest nature.
The protein, fat, energy value of turkey meat are 24%,6.6%, 162 Calories per 100 gm of meat.
Mineral like potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, selenium, zinc and sodium are present.
It is also rich in essential amino acids and vitamins like niacin, vitamin B6 and B12.
It is rich in unsaturated fatty acids and essential fatty acids and low in cholesterol.
A market study shows that a male turkey sold at 24 weeks of age weighing 10 to 20 kg with expenditure of Rs.300 to 450 will give a profit of Rs. 500 to 600.
Likewise a female will give a profit of Rs.300 to 400 in a span of 24 weeks time. Besides, the turkey can be reared in scavenging and semi-scavenging conditions also.

PIG FARMING of Animal husbandry of Sikkim

Advantages of pig rearing

Pigs convert inedible feeds, forages, certain grain byproducts obtained from mills, meat by products, damaged feeds and garbage into valuable nutritious meat. Most of these feeds are either not edible or not very palatable to human beings
Pig grows fast and is a prolific breeder, farrowing 10 to 12 piglets at a time. It is capable of producing two litters per year under optimal management conditions
The carcass return is quite high ie. 60-80 percent of live body weight
With a small investment on building and equipment, proper feeding and sound disease control programme the farmer can profitably utilize his time and labour in this subsidiary occupation
The faeces of pigs is used as a manure to maintain soil fertility

Pig farming- for whom?

Small and landless farmers
Part time earning for educated youth having agriculture as occupation
Uneducated / Unemployed youth
Farm women

Breeds

The indigenous pig has been the basis used for pig production for a long period of time. It is small in size. Improved breeds are now being used for grading up the form the basis for pig production in the rural areas.